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Yet the relative contributions of CM subtype, developmental timing, and cumulative exposure characteristics to adult PF impairment remain unclear. Gender-stratified conditional random forest regression was applied to data from a nationally representative German sample (\n                    <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20092,467; 51.8% women; mean age 50.7 years), simultaneously modelling year-specific CM timing, subtype, and cumulative indices against PF. PF was assessed with the Operationalized Psychodynamic Diagnostic-Structural Questionnaire Short Form (OPD-SQS), which demonstrated excellent external validity (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.89 for clinician-diagnosed personality disorder). Multiplicity, duration, and frequency of CM emerged as the dominant predictors of PF impairment in both sexes, substantially outperforming subtype-specific indicators. Among subtypes, emotional abuse, assessed via verbal abuse acts, showed the highest and most consistent variable importance across sensitive developmental windows, with sex-distinct timing patterns. Post-hoc analyses revealed threshold and interaction effects, underscoring that PF impairment is an environmentally mediated developmental outcome rather than a fixed individual vulnerability. These findings support routine PF assessment in individuals with CM histories and identify early adolescence as a priority window for preventive intervention.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-026-03162-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T10:50:49Z","timestamp":1786963849000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Shaping personality functioning: type and timing effects of childhood maltreatment on personality functioning"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"given":"Christoph","family":"Kasinger","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vera","family":"Clemens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elmar","family":"Br\u00e4hler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J\u00f6rg M.","family":"Fegert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Inga","family":"Schalinski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hanna","family":"Kampling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Johannes","family":"Kruse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dani\u00eblle","family":"Otten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"3162_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596","volume-title":"Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders","author":"American Psychiatric Association","year":"2013","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th edn. 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