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The Udzungwa population is enigmatic, confined to a small area within a large, old-growth forest and consists of fewer than 100 individuals. Apart from baseline data from 2006, ecological knowledge remains scant. We present new data from three standardized sweep censuses conducted between 2013 and 2024 in Ndundulu forest along 42\u201345 linear transects of 2\u00a0km in length. Per census, only 4 to 6 kipunji groups were recorded, within a range of 10.42 km\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    which includes opportunistic sightings. Encounter rate averaged 0.04 groups\/km, 8 to 12 times less than for the three other diurnal primates co-occurring there (\n                    <jats:italic>Colobus angolensis palliatus, Cercopithecus mitis monoides<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>Piliocolobus gordonorum<\/jats:italic>\n                    ). Mean (SD) minimum group size was 17\u2009\u00b1\u20092 individuals, giving a crude and minimum abundance estimation per census that varied from 51\u2009\u00b1\u20096 to 102\u2009\u00b1\u200912 individuals. Despite occurring in high-quality, undisturbed and well-protected habitat, kipunji in Udzungwa show puzzlingly low density and a small range. Kipunji were observed in association with the other three diurnal primates in 43.8% of encounters, mainly forming dyads with Tanzania Sykes\u2019 monkeys (42.9%) and, less frequently, with Udzungwa red colobus (14.3%). However, Sykes\u2019 monkeys associated the least and were the only species whose relative abundance increased, suggesting niche dominance that may particularly affect the kipunji due to shared dietary preferences. We warn that kipunji persistence in Udzungwa is at risk and urge intensified monitoring and continued protection of the Kilombero Nature Forest Reserve.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10329-026-01250-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T14:23:04Z","timestamp":1772806984000},"page":"299-312","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Searching for the forest ghosts: group counts and polyspecific associations of the endangered Rungwecebus kipunji in the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"67","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5979-3442","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia","family":"Barelli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Trevor","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Laizzer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Steven","family":"Shinyambala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Athumani","family":"Mndeme","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Rovero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"1250_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1007\/s10764-014-9772-6","volume":"35","author":"A Araldi","year":"2014","unstructured":"Araldi A, Barelli C, Hodges K, Rovero F (2014) Density estimation of the endangered Udzungwa red colobus (Procolobus gordonorum) and other arboreal primates in the Udzungwa Mountains using systematic distance sampling. 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All data were collected through distance sightings, with no direct contact or interaction with the animals. Highly trained fieldworkers strictly adhered to the Code of Best Practices for Field Primatology published by the International Primatological Society (IPS) and the Principles for the Ethical Treatment of Primates of the American Society of Primatologists (ASP). Data collection complied with all legal requirements and Tanzanian laws governing wildlife research.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical approval"}}]}}