{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T13:43:56Z","timestamp":1793108636931,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02kta5139","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cogn Process"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Recent years have witnessed a growing interest in how multilingualism modifies executive functions. Heart rate variability (HRV), a noninvasive and innocuous indicator of cardiac autonomic function, can also capture individual differences that link cognitive performance with physiological and emotional profiles. This pilot study aimed to analyze the association of multilingualism with cognitive, autonomic, and emotional regulation during working memory (WM) tasks, while also considering trait anxiety (Trait-A). Nineteen young adults were classified as a monolingual group (MON,\n                    <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20099) or a multilingual group (MUL,\n                    <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200910). Participants completed the State\u2011Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and the Neuropsychological Battery of Executive Functions and Frontal Lobes (BANFE\u20113). They then performed an N-back task at three difficulty levels while HRV linear and nonlinear indices were computed. MON exhibited high Trait\u2011A, whereas MUL showed moderate Trait\u2011A. No significant differences were observed in the BANFE-3 subtests, but MUL achieved greater accuracy at the 2-back level of the N-back task. HRV indices showed a load-dependent decline in both groups; within-group analyses, however, revealed that MON and MUL participants showed different within-group autonomic response patterns to cope with the rising cognitive load. These findings suggest that sustained multilingual experience may be associated with differences in autonomic\u2013cognitive responses and attenuated anxiety-related disruptions, underscoring the value of HRV in characterizing individual variability in physiological and behavioral responses.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10339-026-01392-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T11:40:39Z","timestamp":1790854839000},"page":"1475-1488","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Impact of multilingualism on cardiac autonomic activity, working memory and trait anxiety: a pilot study"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Tonantzin Itzel","family":"Cabrera-Ontiveros","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-3972-6486","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diana Estefan\u00eda","family":"Garc\u00eda-C\u00e1rdenas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8290-0800","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia Ivette","family":"Ledesma-Ram\u00edrez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2029-3790","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eric Alonso","family":"Abarca-Castro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-3256-4388","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Karen","family":"Talavera-Pe\u00f1a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5361-5007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Javier","family":"Reyes-Lagos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"1392_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn1201","volume":"4","author":"A Baddeley","year":"2003","unstructured":"Baddeley A (2003) Working memory: looking back and looking forward. Nat Rev Neurosci 4:829\u2013839. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nrn1201","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"1392_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2019.05.004","volume":"134","author":"RM Barker","year":"2019","unstructured":"Barker RM, Bialystok E (2019) Processing differences between monolingual and bilingual young adults on an emotion n-back task. Brain Cogn 134:29\u201343. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bandc.2019.05.004","journal-title":"Brain Cogn"},{"key":"1392_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000099","volume":"143","author":"E Bialystok","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bialystok E (2017) The bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience. Psychol Bull 143:233\u2013262. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/bul0000099","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"key":"1392_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1037\/0882-7974.19.2.290","volume":"19","author":"E Bialystok","year":"2004","unstructured":"Bialystok E, Craik FIM, Klein R, Viswanathan M (2004) Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: evidence from the simon task. Psychol Aging 19:290\u2013303. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0882-7974.19.2.290","journal-title":"Psychol Aging"},{"key":"1392_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.34.4.859","volume":"34","author":"E Bialystok","year":"2008","unstructured":"Bialystok E, Craik F, Luk G (2008) Cognitive control and lexical access in younger and older bilinguals. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 34:859\u2013873. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0278-7393.34.4.859","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn"},{"key":"1392_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2013.04.037","volume":"250","author":"GB Bissonette","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bissonette GB, Powell EM, Roesch MR (2013) Neural structures underlying set-shifting: roles of medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex. Behav Brain Res 250:91\u2013101. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bbr.2013.04.037","journal-title":"Behav Brain Res"},{"key":"1392_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2014.01.008","volume":"86","author":"AR Brunoni","year":"2014","unstructured":"Brunoni AR, Vanderhasselt M-A (2014) Working memory improvement with non-invasive brain stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain Cogn 86:1\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bandc.2014.01.008","journal-title":"Brain Cogn"},{"key":"1392_CR8","first-page":"12","volume":"36","author":"BR Budhi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Budhi BR, Deepeshwar S, Angadi B (2022) Comparative cross-sectional study on phasic heart rate variability and working memory among young adults. Adv Mind Body Med 36:12\u201319","journal-title":"Adv Mind Body Med"},{"key":"1392_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81401","DOI":"10.3389\/FPSYG.2014.01470\/BIBTEX","volume":"5","author":"DL Byrd","year":"2014","unstructured":"Byrd DL, Reuther ET, McNamara JP et al (2014) Age Differences in high frequency phasic heart rate variability and performance response to increased executive function load in three executive function tasks. Front Psychol 5:81401. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/FPSYG.2014.01470\/BIBTEX","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"1392_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.00265","author":"N Calvo","year":"2016","unstructured":"Calvo N, Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez A, Garc\u00eda AM (2016) The impact of bilingualism on working memory: a null effect on the whole may not be so on the parts. Front Psychol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.00265","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"1392_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.riem.2016.03.001","volume":"5","author":"C Castillo Pimienta","year":"2016","unstructured":"Castillo Pimienta C, Chac\u00f3n de la Cruz T, D\u00edaz-V\u00e9liz G (2016) Ansiedad y fuentes de estr\u00e9s acad\u00e9mico en estudiantes de carreras de la salud. Invest Educ Med 5:230\u2013237. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.riem.2016.03.001","journal-title":"Invest Educ Med"},{"key":"1392_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.902870403","volume":"287","author":"C Cavada","year":"1989","unstructured":"Cavada C, Goldman-Rakic PS (1989) Posterior parietal cortex in rhesus monkey: II. Evidence for segregated corticocortical networks linking sensory and limbic areas with the frontal lobe. J Comp Neurol 287:422\u2013445. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/cne.902870403","journal-title":"J Comp Neurol"},{"key":"1392_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.3389\/FPSYT.2014.00080\/ABSTRACT","volume":"5","author":"JA Chalmers","year":"2014","unstructured":"Chalmers JA, Quintana DS, Abbott MJA, Kemp AH (2014) Anxiety disorders are associated with reduced heart rate variability: a meta-analysis. Front Psychiatry 5:80. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/FPSYT.2014.00080\/ABSTRACT","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"1392_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2012.09.001","volume":"86","author":"Y-C Chang","year":"2012","unstructured":"Chang Y-C, Huang S-L (2012) The influence of attention levels on psychophysiological responses. Int J Psychophysiol 86:39\u201347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2012.09.001","journal-title":"Int J Psychophysiol"},{"key":"1392_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/2644\/1\/012009","volume":"2644","author":"H Chu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chu H, Zhen W, Wang H, Wan Y (2023) ECG signal acquisition and processing system. J Phys Conf Ser 2644:012009. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/1742-6596\/2644\/1\/012009","journal-title":"J Phys Conf Ser"},{"key":"1392_CR16","volume-title":"Terapia cognitiva para Trastornos de Ansiedad","author":"DA Clark","year":"2012","unstructured":"Clark DA, Beck AT (2012) Terapia cognitiva para Trastornos de Ansiedad. Descl\u00e9e de Brouwer"},{"key":"1392_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728917000475","volume":"22","author":"K Cockcroft","year":"2019","unstructured":"Cockcroft K, Wigdorowitz M, Liversage L (2019) A multilingual advantage in the components of working memory. Biling Lang Cogn 22:15\u201329. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1366728917000475","journal-title":"Biling Lang Cogn"},{"key":"1392_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2020.105658","volume":"147","author":"KJ Comishen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Comishen KJ, Bialystok E (2021) Increases in attentional demands are associated with language group differences in working memory performance. Brain Cogn 147:105658. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bandc.2020.105658","journal-title":"Brain Cogn"},{"key":"1392_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1298","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.2010.21540","volume":"23","author":"KR Daffner","year":"2011","unstructured":"Daffner KR, Chong H, Sun X et al (2011) Mechanisms underlying age- and performance-related differences in working memory. J Cogn Neurosci 23:1298\u20131314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/jocn.2010.21540","journal-title":"J Cogn Neurosci"},{"key":"1392_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"412315","DOI":"10.3389\/FPHYS.2019.00565\/BIBTEX","volume":"10","author":"S Delliaux","year":"2019","unstructured":"Delliaux S, Delaforge A, Deharo JC, Chaumet G (2019) Mental workload alters heart rate variability, lowering non-linear dynamics. Front Physiol 10:412315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/FPHYS.2019.00565\/BIBTEX","journal-title":"Front Physiol"},{"key":"1392_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/JOURNAL.PONE.0146131","volume":"11","author":"DA Dimitriev","year":"2016","unstructured":"Dimitriev DA, Saperova EV, Dimitriev AD (2016) State anxiety and nonlinear dynamics of heart rate variability in students. PLoS One 11:e0146131. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/JOURNAL.PONE.0146131","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"1392_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-8703(50)90165-7","volume":"40","author":"W Einthoven","year":"1950","unstructured":"Einthoven W, Fahr G, de Waart A (1950) On the direction and manifest size of the variations of potential in the human heart and on the influence of the position of the heart on the form of the electrocardiogram. Am Heart J 40:163\u2013211. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0002-8703(50)90165-7","journal-title":"Am Heart J"},{"key":"1392_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1080\/09658211.2011.590504","volume":"19","author":"PMJ Engel de Abreu","year":"2011","unstructured":"Engel de Abreu PMJ (2011) Working memory in multilingual children: is there a bilingual effect? Memory 19:529\u2013537. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09658211.2011.590504","journal-title":"Memory"},{"key":"1392_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2010.08.019","volume":"50","author":"MW Eysenck","year":"2011","unstructured":"Eysenck MW, Derakshan N (2011) New perspectives in attentional control theory. Pers Individ Dif 50:955\u2013960. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.paid.2010.08.019","journal-title":"Pers Individ Dif"},{"key":"1392_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1037\/1528-3542.7.2.336","volume":"7","author":"MW Eysenck","year":"2007","unstructured":"Eysenck MW, Derakshan N, Santos R, Calvo MG (2007) Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory. Emotion 7:336\u2013353. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/1528-3542.7.2.336","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"1392_CR26","volume-title":"BANFE-3: Bater\u00eda Neuropsicol\u00f3gica de Funciones Ejecutivas y L\u00f3bulos Frontales","author":"J Flores","year":"2020","unstructured":"Flores J, Ostrosky F, Lozano A (2020) BANFE-3: Bater\u00eda Neuropsicol\u00f3gica de Funciones Ejecutivas y L\u00f3bulos Frontales, 3rd edn. Manual Moderno","edition":"3rd edn"},{"key":"1392_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1024190429920","volume":"31","author":"JM Fuster","year":"2002","unstructured":"Fuster JM (2002) Frontal lobe and cognitive development. J Neurocytol 31:373\u2013385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/A:1024190429920","journal-title":"J Neurocytol"},{"key":"1392_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728922000621","volume":"26","author":"V Fyndanis","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fyndanis V, Cameron S, Hansen PB et al (2023) Multilingualism and verbal short-term\/working memory: evidence from academics. Biling Lang Cogn 26:490\u2013503. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1366728922000621","journal-title":"Biling Lang Cogn"},{"key":"1392_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2013.796377","volume":"25","author":"DW Green","year":"2013","unstructured":"Green DW, Abutalebi J (2013) Language control in bilinguals: The adaptive control hypothesis. J Cogn Psychol 25:515\u2013530. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/20445911.2013.796377","journal-title":"J Cogn Psychol"},{"key":"1392_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"H\u00e4mmerle P, Eick C, Blum S et al (2020) Heart rate variability triangular index as a predictor of cardiovascular mortality in patients with atrial fibrillation. J Am Heart Assoc 9. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1161\/JAHA.120.016075","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.120.016075"},{"key":"1392_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-8760(03)00073-4","volume":"48","author":"AL Hansen","year":"2003","unstructured":"Hansen AL, Johnsen BH, Thayer JF (2003) Vagal influence on working memory and attention. Int J Psychophysiol 48:263\u2013274. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0167-8760(03)00073-4","journal-title":"Int J Psychophysiol"},{"key":"1392_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.211115","volume":"49","author":"MG Heckman","year":"2022","unstructured":"Heckman MG, Davis JM, Crowson CS (2022) Post Hoc power calculations: an inappropriate method for interpreting the findings of a research study. J Rheumatol 49:867\u2013870. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3899\/jrheum.211115","journal-title":"J Rheumatol"},{"key":"1392_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-023-04628-1","volume":"6","author":"TP Hein","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hein TP, Gong Z, Ivanova M et al (2023) Anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex oscillations underlie learning alterations in trait anxiety in humans. Commun Biol 6:271. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s42003-023-04628-1","journal-title":"Commun Biol"},{"key":"1392_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.1973.324169","volume":"BME-20","author":"JC Huhta","year":"1973","unstructured":"Huhta JC, Webster JG (1973) 60-Hz interference in electrocardiography. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng BME-20:91\u2013101. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TBME.1973.324169","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Biomed Eng"},{"key":"1392_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/FPSYG.2018.01582","volume":"9","author":"M Janus","year":"2018","unstructured":"Janus M, Bialystok E (2018) Working memory with emotional distraction in monolingual and bilingual children. Front Psychol 9:1582. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/FPSYG.2018.01582","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"1392_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroling.2018.12.002","volume":"51","author":"L Jiao","year":"2019","unstructured":"Jiao L, Zhang Y, Plummer P et al (2019) The influence of bilingual language experience on executive control: An ERPs study. J Neurolinguistics 51:42\u201352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jneuroling.2018.12.002","journal-title":"J Neurolinguistics"},{"key":"1392_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.13622","author":"EL Knight","year":"2020","unstructured":"Knight EL, Giuliano RJ, Shank SW et al (2020) Parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems interactively predict change in cognitive functioning in midlife adults. Psychophysiology. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/psyp.13622","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"1392_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6556","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0811323106","volume":"106","author":"\u00c1M Kov\u00e1cs","year":"2009","unstructured":"Kov\u00e1cs \u00c1M, Mehler J (2009) Cognitive gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants. Proc Natl Acad Sci 106:6556\u20136560. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.0811323106","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci"},{"key":"1392_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kroll JF, Dussias PE, Bogulski CA, Kroff JRV (2012) Juggling Two Languages in One Mind. pp 229\u2013262","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-394393-4.00007-8"},{"key":"1392_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2008.07.056","volume":"44","author":"RD Lane","year":"2009","unstructured":"Lane RD, McRae K, Reiman EM et al (2009) Neural correlates of heart rate variability during emotion. NeuroImage 44:213\u2013222. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2008.07.056","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"1392_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1026","DOI":"10.1162\/0898929054475127","volume":"17","author":"A Lenartowicz","year":"2005","unstructured":"Lenartowicz A, McIntosh AR (2005) The role of anterior cingulate cortex in working memory is shaped by functional connectivity. J Cogn Neurosci 17:1026\u20131042. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/0898929054475127","journal-title":"J Cogn Neurosci"},{"key":"1392_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2010.10.008","volume":"45","author":"AC Leon","year":"2011","unstructured":"Leon AC, Davis LL, Kraemer HC (2011) The role and interpretation of pilot studies in clinical research. J Psychiatr Res 45:626\u2013629. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2010.10.008","journal-title":"J Psychiatr Res"},{"key":"1392_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyw320","author":"G Li","year":"2016","unstructured":"Li G, Taljaard M, Van den Heuvel ER et al (2016) An introduction to multiplicity issues in clinical trials: the what, why, when and how. Int J Epidemiol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ije\/dyw320","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"key":"1392_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728911000010","volume":"14","author":"G Luk","year":"2011","unstructured":"Luk G, De Sa E, Bialystok E (2011) Is there a relation between onset age of bilingualism and enhancement of cognitive control? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 14:588\u2013595. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1366728911000010","journal-title":"Bilingualism: Language and Cognition"},{"key":"1392_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417351","DOI":"10.3389\/FPSYG.2019.00004\/BIBTEX","volume":"10","author":"KM Lukasik","year":"2019","unstructured":"Lukasik KM, Waris O, Soveri A et al (2019) The relationship of anxiety and stress with working memory performance in a large non-depressed sample. Front Psychol 10:417351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/FPSYG.2019.00004\/BIBTEX","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"1392_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/J.BIOPSYCHO.2015.11.013","volume":"113","author":"A Luque-Casado","year":"2016","unstructured":"Luque-Casado A, Perales JC, C\u00e1rdenas D, Sanabria D (2016) Heart rate variability and cognitive processing: the autonomic response to task demands. Biol Psychol 113:83\u201390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.BIOPSYCHO.2015.11.013","journal-title":"Biol Psychol"},{"key":"1392_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.7453\/GAHMJ.2014.073","volume":"4","author":"R McCraty","year":"2015","unstructured":"McCraty R, Shaffer F (2015) Heart rate variability: new perspectives on physiological mechanisms, assessment of self-regulatory capacity, and health risk. Glob Adv Health Med 4:46. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7453\/GAHMJ.2014.073","journal-title":"Glob Adv Health Med"},{"key":"1392_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2011.11.004","volume":"42","author":"E Miranda Dantas","year":"2012","unstructured":"Miranda Dantas E, Lima Sant\u2019Anna M, Varej\u00e3o Andre\u00e3o R et al (2012) Spectral analysis of heart rate variability with the autoregressive method: What model order to choose? Comput Biol Med 42:164\u2013170. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2011.11.004","journal-title":"Comput Biol Med"},{"key":"1392_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1006\/cogp.1999.0734","volume":"41","author":"A Miyake","year":"2000","unstructured":"Miyake A, Friedman NP, Emerson MJ et al (2000) The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex frontal lobe tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cogn Psychol 41:49\u2013100. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1006\/cogp.1999.0734","journal-title":"Cogn Psychol"},{"key":"1392_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2012.09.002","volume":"114","author":"J Morales","year":"2013","unstructured":"Morales J, Calvo A, Bialystok E (2013) Working memory development in monolingual and bilingual children. J Exp Child Psychol 114:187\u2013202. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jecp.2012.09.002","journal-title":"J Exp Child Psychol"},{"key":"1392_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000051","volume":"142","author":"TP Moran","year":"2016","unstructured":"Moran TP (2016) Anxiety and working memory capacity: a meta-analysis and narrative review. Psychol Bull 142:831\u2013864. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/bul0000051","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"key":"1392_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728918000391","volume":"22","author":"C Morrison","year":"2019","unstructured":"Morrison C, Kamal F, Taler V (2019) The influence of bilingualism on working memory event-related potentials. Biling Lang Cogn 22:191\u2013199. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1366728918000391","journal-title":"Biling Lang Cogn"},{"key":"1392_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Moses ZB, Luecken LJ, Eason JC (2007) Measuring task-related changes in heart rate variability. Annual Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biology - Proc 644\u2013647. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/IEMBS.2007.4352372","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2007.4352372"},{"key":"1392_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1046\/J.1475-0961.2003.00523.X","volume":"24","author":"L Mourot","year":"2004","unstructured":"Mourot L, Bouhaddi M, Perrey S et al (2004) Decrease in heart rate variability with overtraining: assessment by the Poincar\u00e9 plot analysis. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 24:10\u201318. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1046\/J.1475-0961.2003.00523.X","journal-title":"Clin Physiol Funct Imaging"},{"key":"1392_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2011.02.032","volume":"122","author":"S Mukherjee","year":"2011","unstructured":"Mukherjee S, Yadav R, Yung I et al (2011) Sensitivity to mental effort and test-retest reliability of heart rate variability measures in healthy seniors. Clin Neurophysiol 122:2059\u20132066. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.clinph.2011.02.032","journal-title":"Clin Neurophysiol"},{"key":"1392_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0138921","volume":"10","author":"ML Munoz","year":"2015","unstructured":"Munoz ML, van Roon A, Riese H et al (2015) Validity of (ultra-)short recordings for heart rate variability measurements. PLoS One 10:e0138921. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0138921","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"1392_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1080\/13670050.2010.488288","volume":"13","author":"M Namazi","year":"2010","unstructured":"Namazi M, Thordardottir E (2010) A working memory, not bilingual advantage, in controlled attention. Int J Biling Educ Biling 13:597\u2013616. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13670050.2010.488288","journal-title":"Int J Biling Educ Biling"},{"key":"1392_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.3390\/BS9080089","volume":"9","author":"J Ouzia","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ouzia J, Bright P, Filippi R (2019) Attentional control in bilingualism: an exploration of the effects of trait anxiety and rumination on inhibition. Behav Sci 9:89. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/BS9080089","journal-title":"Behav Sci"},{"key":"1392_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.1985.325532","volume":"BME-32","author":"J Pan","year":"1985","unstructured":"Pan J, Tompkins WJ (1985) A real-time QRS detection algorithm. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng BME-32:230\u2013236. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TBME.1985.325532","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Biomed Eng"},{"key":"1392_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1037\/H0027921","volume":"81","author":"SW Porges","year":"1969","unstructured":"Porges SW, Raskin DC (1969) Respiratory and heart rate components of attention. J Exp Psychol 81:497\u2013503. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/H0027921","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol"},{"key":"1392_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2014.08.010","volume":"103","author":"S Qi","year":"2014","unstructured":"Qi S, Chen J, Hitchman G et al (2014) Reduced representations capacity in visual working memory in trait anxiety. Biol Psychol 103:92\u201399. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2014.08.010","journal-title":"Biol Psychol"},{"key":"1392_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1097\/00001648-199001000-00010","volume":"1","author":"KJ Rothman","year":"1990","unstructured":"Rothman KJ (1990) No adjustments are needed for multiple comparisons. Epidemiology 1:43\u201346","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"1392_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2017.00258","author":"F Shaffer","year":"2017","unstructured":"Shaffer F, Ginsberg JP (2017) An overview of heart rate variability metrics and norms. Front Public Health. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2017.00258","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"1392_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/FPSYG.2014.01040","volume":"5","author":"F Shaffer","year":"2014","unstructured":"Shaffer F, McCraty R, Zerr CL (2014) A healthy heart is not a metronome: an integrative review of the heart\u2019s anatomy and heart rate variability. Front Psychol 5:1040. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/FPSYG.2014.01040","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"1392_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1097\/WNR.0b013e328305b722","volume":"19","author":"A Simmons","year":"2008","unstructured":"Simmons A, Matthews SC, Feinstein JS et al (2008) Anxiety vulnerability is associated with altered anterior cingulate response to an affective appraisal task. NeuroReport 19:1033\u20131037. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/WNR.0b013e328305b722","journal-title":"NeuroReport"},{"key":"1392_CR66","volume-title":"Inventario de Ansiedad Rasgo-Estado (IDARE)","author":"CD Spielberger","year":"1975","unstructured":"Spielberger CD, D\u00edaz-Guerrero R (1975) Inventario de Ansiedad Rasgo-Estado (IDARE). Manual Moderno, M\u00e9xico"},{"key":"1392_CR67","volume-title":"Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory","author":"CD Spielberger","year":"1970","unstructured":"Spielberger CD, Gorsuch RL, Lushene RE (1970) Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory. Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA"},{"key":"1392_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1107994","DOI":"10.3389\/FPSYG.2023.1107994\/BIBTEX","volume":"14","author":"Y Tao","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tao Y, Zhu Z, Liu Y (2023) The influence of bilingual experience on executive function under emotional interference: Evidence from the N1 component. Front Psychol 14:1107994. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/FPSYG.2023.1107994\/BIBTEX","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"1392_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmpb.2013.07.024","volume":"113","author":"MP Tarvainen","year":"2014","unstructured":"Tarvainen MP, Niskanen J-P, Lipponen JA et al (2014) Kubios HRV \u2013 Heart rate variability analysis software. Comput Methods Programs Biomed 113:210\u2013220. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cmpb.2013.07.024","journal-title":"Comput Methods Programs Biomed"},{"key":"1392_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-0327(00)00338-4","volume":"61","author":"JF Thayer","year":"2000","unstructured":"Thayer JF, Lane RD (2000) A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. J Affect Disord 61:201\u2013216. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0165-0327(00)00338-4","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"1392_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/J.NEUBIOREV.2008.08.004","volume":"33","author":"JF Thayer","year":"2009","unstructured":"Thayer JF, Lane RD (2009) Claude Bernard and the heart\u2013brain connection: Further elaboration of a model of neurovisceral integration. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 33:81\u201388. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.NEUBIOREV.2008.08.004","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"1392_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s12160-009-9101-z","volume":"37","author":"JF Thayer","year":"2009","unstructured":"Thayer JF, Hansen AL, Saus-Rose E, Johnsen BH (2009) Heart rate variability, prefrontal neural function, and cognitive performance: the neurovisceral integration perspective on self-regulation, adaptation, and health. Ann Behav Med 37:141\u2013153. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12160-009-9101-z","journal-title":"Ann Behav Med"},{"key":"1392_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2021.648624","author":"S Vijayraghavan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Vijayraghavan S, Everling S (2021) Neuromodulation of persistent activity and working memory circuitry in primate prefrontal cortex by muscarinic receptors. Front Neural Circuits. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fncir.2021.648624","journal-title":"Front Neural Circuits"},{"key":"1392_CR74","first-page":"182","volume":"23","author":"Z Wang","year":"2005","unstructured":"Wang Z, Yang L, Ding J (2005) [Application of heart rate variability in evaluation of mental workload]. Zhonghua lao dong wei sheng zhi ye bing za zhi 23:182\u2013184","journal-title":"Zhonghua lao dong wei sheng zhi ye bing za zhi"},{"key":"1392_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.09.132","volume":"279","author":"SL Warren","year":"2021","unstructured":"Warren SL, Heller W, Miller GA (2021) The structure of executive dysfunction in depression and anxiety. J Affect Disord 279:208\u2013216. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jad.2020.09.132","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"1392_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/7069274","volume":"2016","author":"B Wong","year":"2016","unstructured":"Wong B, Yin B, O\u2019Brien B (2016) Neurolinguistics: structure, function, and connectivity in the bilingual brain. Biomed Res Int 2016:1\u201322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2016\/7069274","journal-title":"Biomed Res Int"},{"key":"1392_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728924001019","volume":"28","author":"L Xia","year":"2025","unstructured":"Xia L, Sorace A, Vega-Mendoza M, Bak T (2025) How language proficiency and age of acquisition affect executive control in bilinguals: continuous versus dichotomous analysis approaches. Biling Lang Cogn 28:1163\u20131176. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1366728924001019","journal-title":"Biling Lang Cogn"},{"key":"1392_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci7070086","volume":"7","author":"E Yang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Yang E (2017) Bilinguals\u2019 Working Memory (WM) Advantage and their dual language practices. Brain Sci 7:86. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci7070086","journal-title":"Brain Sci"},{"key":"1392_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-30552-9","volume":"13","author":"MK Yeung","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yeung MK, Han YMY (2023) Changes in task performance and frontal cortex activation within and over sessions during the n-back task. Sci Rep 13:3363. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-023-30552-9","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"1392_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1119405","author":"J Zeng","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zeng J, Meng J, Wang C et al (2023) High vagally mediated resting-state heart rate variability is associated with superior working memory function. Front Neurosci. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnins.2023.1119405","journal-title":"Front Neurosci"}],"container-title":["Cognitive Processing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10339-026-01392-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10339-026-01392-y","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10339-026-01392-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T13:25:44Z","timestamp":1793107544000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10339-026-01392-y"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]]},"references-count":80,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,11]]}},"alternative-id":["1392"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10339-026-01392-y","relation":{},"ISSN":["1612-4782","1612-4790"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1612-4782","type":"print"},{"value":"1612-4790","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"15 November 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"26 August 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 October 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Conflict of interest","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}]}}