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To minimize risk for neck pain, the effect of helmets on cervical spine biomechanics must be understood.\n                      <jats:italic>In-vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                      methods are difficult and invasive, so finite element modeling (FEM) techniques have been utilized recently to understand neck pathology development. Accurate muscle forces are crucial for physiologically relevant results. Therefore, this study evaluated the relationship between helmet loads and cervical muscle forces using two FEM muscle activation strategies.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A validated cervical spine model was altered to include a fighter pilot\u2019s helmet load and muscle activations. The following simulations were analyzed: a no-helmet (NH) and helmet (H) conditions using both proportional-integral-derivative (PID) and shear wave elastography (SWE) techniques to estimate muscle forces to stabilize the head in a neutral position. Intervertebral disc (IVD) forces and pressures were reported to validate the muscle forces.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>PID and SWE methods produced different muscle activation patterns, with PID recruiting larger muscles first. SWE muscle forces were more closely aligned with EMG data, displaying larger activations in the deep stabilizer muscles. NH model loads suggest that both PID and SWE will produce physiological loads on structures in the spine.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The use of SWE allows for more subject- and muscle-specificity in FEM, and the results are more consistent with\n                      <jats:italic>in-vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                      data. With the implementation of SWE-informed FEMs, pain mechanisms may be more accurately predicted which can lead to production of more optimal helmet designs, injury prevention protocols, and individualized rehabilitation strategies.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-026-04229-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T13:46:14Z","timestamp":1781703974000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Predicting cervical muscle forces in fighter pilots: a comparison of shear wave elastography and PID controllers using finite element analysis"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"given":"Mackenzie","family":"Hoey","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Constantin","family":"Heinemann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alex","family":"Vadati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4590-4583","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zachary J","family":"Domire","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"4229_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.3357\/ASEM.2935.2011","volume":"82","author":"B Lange","year":"2011","unstructured":"Lange, B., J. 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This study is distinct from our prior CMBBE publication, which focused on foraminal ligament and nerve root submodel validation under helmet loading. The present manuscript instead examines the effect of muscle activation strategy, specifically PID versus SWE-informed loading, on cervical muscle-force distribution and intervertebral disc mechanics.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}}]}}