{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T16:02:05Z","timestamp":1790352125575,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790294400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790294400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AIDS Behav"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>This study analyzes the enforcement of viral hepatitis criminalization in the United States. Indiana is one of nine states with laws criminalizing viral hepatitis exposure. Using a legal epidemiological approach, we reviewed court records and probable cause affidavits to identify prosecutions involving people living with hepatitis C virus (HCV) under Indiana\u2019s Battery by Bodily Fluid and Waste law between 2011 and 2025. We identified 94 cases involving 98 HCV exposure incidents and assessed transmission risk using a novel HCV Transmission Risk Classification Framework. None of the incidents alleged conduct posing a plausible risk of HCV transmission; most involved saliva exposure through spitting (72.5%). Defendants were primarily white (94.7%), male (61.7%), and 18\u201368 years old. Case filings peaked in 2018\u20132019 but persisted through 2025. Hepatitis prosecutions operated largely independently of HIV criminalization. Our findings suggest the need for infectious disease law reform to align with current transmission science.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-026-05312-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T15:17:35Z","timestamp":1790349455000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["No Risk, Severe Consequence: Hepatitis C Criminalization in Indiana Involves Only Non-Transmissible Exposures"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-9131-8007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carrie","family":"Foote","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-8147-4879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Phoenix","family":"Schlebecker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-2705-2027","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jordan","family":"Grasso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-6502-7311","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Courtney","family":"Harris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6790-8152","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nathan","family":"Cisneros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"reference":[{"issue":"7","key":"5312_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2025.308162","volume":"115","author":"J Csete","year":"2025","unstructured":"Csete J. An effective HIV response means HIV decriminalization. Am J Public Health. 2025;115(7):988\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/AJPH.2025.308162.","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"5312_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e52","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-3018(22)00248-X","volume":"10","author":"J Csete","year":"2023","unstructured":"Csete J, Elliott R, Bernard EJ. So many harms, so little benefit: a global review of the history and harms of HIV criminalisation. Lancet HIV. 2023;10(1):e52\u201361. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2352-3018(22)00248-X.","journal-title":"Lancet HIV"},{"key":"5312_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bland S. Decriminalizing disease: A health justice approach to infectious diseases and criminal law. Ark Law Rev. 2024;77(3). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.54119\/alr.ewzi3754.","DOI":"10.54119\/alr.ewzi3754"},{"key":"5312_CR4","unstructured":"Center for HIV Law and Policy, Map. An Overview of States Criminalizing Viral Hepatitis, CHLPupdated May (2022). https:\/\/www.hivlawandpolicy.org\/resources\/map-overview-states-criminalizing-viral-hepatitis-chlp-updated-may-2022 Accessed 11 Mar 2026."},{"key":"5312_CR5","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Viral Hepatitis National Strategic Plan for the United States: A Roadmap to Elimination (2021\u20132025). 2020. https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/Viral-Hepatitis-National-Strategic-Plan-2021-2025.pdf Accessed 11 Mar 2026."},{"key":"5312_CR6","first-page":"1","volume-title":"HIV Criminalization in Indiana: Evaluation of Transmission Risk","author":"N Cisneros","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cisneros N, Foote C, Schlebecker P, Sears B. HIV Criminalization in Indiana: Evaluation of Transmission Risk. Los Angeles: The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law; 2024. pp. 1\u201324. https:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/HIV-Crim-Transmission-IN-Nov-2024.pdf."},{"key":"5312_CR7","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Enforcement of HIV Criminalization in Indiana: Donation Laws","author":"N Cisneros","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cisneros N, Foote C, Schlebecker P, Sears B. Enforcement of HIV Criminalization in Indiana: Donation Laws. Los Angeles: The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law; 2024. pp. 1\u201329. https:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/HIV-Criminalization-Donation-IN-Jul-2024.pdf."},{"key":"5312_CR8","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Enforcement of HIV Criminalization in Indiana: Bodily Fluid\/Waste Enhancement Laws","author":"N Cisneros","year":"2025","unstructured":"Cisneros N, Foote C, Schlebecker P, et al. Enforcement of HIV Criminalization in Indiana: Bodily Fluid\/Waste Enhancement Laws. Los Angeles: The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law; 2025. pp. 1\u201334. https:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/HIV-Criminalization-IN-Fluids-Jan-2025.pdf."},{"key":"5312_CR9","unstructured":"Smith J. Activists hope ruling will lead to repeal of HIV law. Indianapolis Star. pgs. 1,4. March 17, 1996. https:\/\/www.newspapers.com\/article\/the-indianapolis-star-activists-hope-rul\/133022294\/ Accessed Aug 1. 2026."},{"key":"5312_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-014-0724-0","volume":"18","author":"JS Lehman","year":"2014","unstructured":"Lehman JS, Carr MH, Nichol AJ, et al. Prevalence and public health implications of state laws that criminalize potential HIV exposure in the United States. AIDS Behav. 2014;18:997\u20131006. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10461-014-0724-0.","journal-title":"AIDS Behav"},{"key":"5312_CR11","unstructured":"Indiana Battery Code. \u00a7 35-42-2-1(c2)(f)(h), Subsections on Bodily Fluid and Waste Exposure as It Pertains to Disease Penalty Enhancements. https:\/\/iga.in.gov\/laws\/2025\/ic\/titles\/35#35-42-2-1 Accessed 11 Mar 2026."},{"key":"5312_CR12","unstructured":"Indiana Sentences Code \u00a7 35-50-2 Chap. 2. Death Sentence and Sentences for Felonies and Habitual Offenders. https:\/\/iga.in.gov\/laws\/2025\/ic\/titles\/35#35-50-2 Accessed 28 May 2026."},{"issue":"2","key":"5312_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S4","DOI":"10.1097\/PHH.0000000000001133","volume":"26","author":"S Burris","year":"2020","unstructured":"Burris S, Cloud LK, Penn M. The growing field of legal epidemiology. 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MyCase: Indiana\u2019s Online Court Case System. https:\/\/public.courts.in.gov\/mycase\/#\/vw\/Search"},{"key":"5312_CR18","unstructured":"Doxpop. https:\/\/www.doxpop.com\/prod\/"},{"key":"5312_CR19","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Clinical Overview of Hepatitis C. Hepatitis C. 29. Aug. 2025. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/hepatitis-c\/hcp\/clinical-overview\/index.html Accessed 11 Mar 2026."},{"issue":"2","key":"5312_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2017.304132","volume":"108","author":"JE Zibbell","year":"2018","unstructured":"Zibbell JE, Asher AK, Patel RC, et al. Increases in acute Hepatitis C virus infection related to a growing opioid epidemic and associated injection drug use, United States, 2004 to 2014. Am J Public Health. 2018;108(2):175\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/AJPH.2017.304132.","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"issue":"6","key":"5312_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciu447","volume":"59","author":"L Benova","year":"2014","unstructured":"Benova L, Mohamoud YA, Calvert C, et al. Vertical transmission of Hepatitis C Virus: systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59(6):765\u201373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cid\/ciu447.","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"5312_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Moorman AC. Testing and clinical management of health care personnel potentially exposed to Hepatitis C Virus \u2014 CDC guidance, United States, 2020. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2020;69. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15585\/mmwr.rr6906a1.","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.rr6906a1"},{"issue":"1","key":"5312_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(20)30303-4","volume":"6","author":"F Jin","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jin F, Dore GJ, Matthews G, et al. Prevalence and incidence of hepatitis C virus infection in men who have sex with men: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2021;6(1):39\u201356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2468-1253(20)30303-4.","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol"},{"issue":"4","key":"5312_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.23808","volume":"52","author":"RA Tohme","year":"2010","unstructured":"Tohme RA, Holmberg SD. Is sexual contact a major mode of Hepatitis C virus transmission? 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Proof of alleged transmission of hepatitis C virus by a conjunctival blood splash. Am J Infect Control. 2004;32(6):375\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ajic.2004.03.008.","journal-title":"Am J Infect Control"},{"key":"5312_CR28","volume-title":"30 Essential Skills for the Qualitative Researcher","author":"JW Creswell","year":"2016","unstructured":"Creswell JW. Conducting intercoder agreement. 30 Essential Skills for the Qualitative Researcher. Los Angeles: Sage; 2016."},{"key":"5312_CR29","unstructured":"UCLA School of Law Williams Institute. Issues: HIV Criminalization. https:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/issues\/hiv-criminalization\/ Accessed 11 Mar 2026."},{"key":"5312_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2624","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-013-0408-1","volume":"17","author":"CL Galletly","year":"2013","unstructured":"Galletly CL, Lazzarini Z. Charges for criminal exposure to HIV and aggravated prostitution filed in the Nashville, Tennessee prosecutorial region 2000\u20132010. AIDS Behav. 2013;17:2624\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10461-013-0408-1.","journal-title":"AIDS Behav"},{"key":"5312_CR31","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Enforcement of HIV Criminalization in Tennessee","author":"N Cisneros","year":"2025","unstructured":"Cisneros N, Sears B, Lennon-Dearing R. Enforcement of HIV Criminalization in Tennessee. Los Angeles: The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law; 2025. pp. 1\u201356. https:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/HIV-Criminalization-TN-Jun-2022.pdf."},{"key":"5312_CR32","unstructured":"Wilham T. Feb. Department to investigate fight, Sect.\u00a0 8. Star Press 14 2001. https:\/\/www.newspapers.com\/article\/the-star-press-department-to-investigate\/192661745\/ Accessed 24 May 2026."},{"key":"5312_CR33","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Division of Viral Hepatitis 2025 Strategic Plan. CDC; 2025. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/hepatitis\/media\/DVH-StrategicPlan2020-2025.pdf. Accessed 24 May 2026."}],"container-title":["AIDS and Behavior"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10461-026-05312-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10461-026-05312-1","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10461-026-05312-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T15:17:41Z","timestamp":1790349461000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10461-026-05312-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"references-count":33,"alternative-id":["5312"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10461-026-05312-1","relation":{},"ISSN":["1090-7165","1573-3254"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1090-7165","type":"print"},{"value":"1573-3254","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"12 September 2026","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 September 2026","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors obtained data through requests made under Indiana\u2019s Public Records Act (Indiana Code 5-14-3), which provides public access to records maintained by state agencies, including police and court systems. Because the study relied exclusively on administrative records and did not involve direct interaction with human subjects, informed consent was not required. The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Indiana University Institutional Review Board (IRB #12095).","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors have no financial or non-financial interests to disclose.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing Interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}]}}