{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T14:45:17Z","timestamp":1787064317223,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]],"date-time":"2026-03-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772668800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]],"date-time":"2026-03-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772668800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"NIH"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cancer Causes Control"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s10552-026-02138-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]],"date-time":"2026-03-05T06:04:55Z","timestamp":1772690695000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Breast cancer inequities: the intersectional role of social epidemiology and tumor biology"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"37","author":[{"given":"Malalage Nicole","family":"Peiris","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aylin","family":"Dedeoglu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ilze","family":"Smidt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Akiko","family":"Suzuki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Esther","family":"Rheinbay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adrian","family":"Ilinski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiaji George","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Osasogie","family":"Imafidon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christina","family":"Ennis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kiana","family":"Mahdaviani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruben","family":"Dries","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leif W.","family":"Ellisen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9689-9601","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Naomi Y.","family":"Ko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"2138_CR1","first-page":"202","volume":"72","author":"AN Giaquinto","year":"2022","unstructured":"Giaquinto AN et al (2022) Cancer statistics for African American\/black people 2022. CA Cancer J Clin 72:202\u2013229","journal-title":"CA Cancer J Clin"},{"key":"2138_CR2","unstructured":"American Cancer Society (2024) Cancer facts & figures 2024. American Cancer Society, New York"},{"key":"2138_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2138","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.29935","volume":"122","author":"DR Williams","year":"2016","unstructured":"Williams DR, Mohammed SA, Shields AE (2016) Understanding and effectively addressing breast cancer in African American women: unpacking the social context. Cancer 122:2138\u20132149","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"2138_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1001\/jamasurg.2017.0005","volume":"152","author":"LA Newman","year":"2017","unstructured":"Newman LA, Kaljee LM (2017) Health disparities and triple-negative breast cancer in African American women: a review. JAMA Surg 152:485\u2013493","journal-title":"JAMA Surg"},{"issue":"2","key":"2138_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1038\/s41416-020-01038-6","volume":"124","author":"VA Zavaka","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zavaka VA et al (2021) Cancer health disparities in racial\/ethnic minorities in the United States. Br J Cancer 124(2):315\u2013332","journal-title":"Br J Cancer"},{"key":"2138_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-014-2976-9","volume":"145","author":"HM Sineshaw","year":"2014","unstructured":"Sineshaw HM et al (2014) Association of race\/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and breast cancer subtypes in the national cancer data base (2010-2011). Breast Cancer Res Treat 145:753\u2013763","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res Treat"},{"key":"2138_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12032-012-0419-1","volume":"30","author":"ZZ Nurgalieva","year":"2013","unstructured":"Nurgalieva ZZ et al (2013) Impact of timing of adjuvant chemotherapy initiation and completion after surgery on racial disparities in survival among women with breast cancer. Med Oncol 30:419","journal-title":"Med Oncol"},{"key":"2138_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1801","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.279.22.1801","volume":"279","author":"DR Lannin","year":"1998","unstructured":"Lannin DR (1998) Influence of socioeconomic and cultural factors on racial differences in late-stage presentation of breast cancer. JAMA 279:1801\u20131807","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2138_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2019.5672","volume":"6","author":"NY Ko","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ko NY, Hong S, Winn RA, Calip GS (2020) Association of insurance status and racial disparities with the detection of early-stage breast cancer. JAMA Oncol 6:385\u2013392","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol"},{"key":"2138_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/s13058-022-01533-z","volume":"24","author":"SD Siegel","year":"2022","unstructured":"Siegel SD et al (2022) Racial disparities in triple negative breast cancer: toward a causal architecture approach. Breast Cancer Res 24:37","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res"},{"key":"2138_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1097\/SLA.0000000000004451","volume":"273","author":"MR Poulson","year":"2021","unstructured":"Poulson MR et al (2021) Residential racial segregation and disparities in breast cancer presentation, treatment, and survival. Ann Surg 273:3\u20139","journal-title":"Ann Surg"},{"key":"2138_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2019.02.011","volume":"33","author":"AT Forde","year":"2019","unstructured":"Forde AT, Crookes DM, Suglia SF, Demmer RT (2019) The weathering hypothesis as an explanation for racial disparities in health: a systematic review. Ann Epidemiol 33:1-18.e3","journal-title":"Ann Epidemiol"},{"key":"2138_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-021-06430-1","volume":"191","author":"J Gohar","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gohar J et al (2022) Neighborhood characteristics and breast tumor methylation: using epigenomics to explore cancer outcome disparities. Breast Cancer Res Treat 191:653\u2013663","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res Treat"},{"key":"2138_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14081903","volume":"14","author":"S Joshi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Joshi S et al (2022) Epigenetic determinants of racial disparity in breast cancer: looking beyond genetic alterations. Cancers 14:1903","journal-title":"Cancers"},{"key":"2138_CR15","first-page":"280","volume":"1","author":"N Goel","year":"2024","unstructured":"Goel N et al (2024) ZIP code to genomic code: neighborhood disadvantage, aggressive breast cancer biology, and breast cancer outcomes. Ann Surg 1:280","journal-title":"Ann Surg"},{"key":"2138_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61963-1","volume":"381","author":"C Davies","year":"2013","unstructured":"Davies C et al (2013) Long-term effects of continuing adjuvant tamoxifen to 10 years versus stopping at 5 years after diagnosis of oestrogen receptor-positive breast cancer: ATLAS, a randomised trial. Lancet 381:805\u2013816","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2138_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1177\/107327481602300404","volume":"23","author":"LM Hamel","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hamel LM et al (2016) Barriers to clinical trial enrollment in racial and ethnic minority patients with cancer. Cancer Control 23:327\u2013337","journal-title":"Cancer Control"},{"key":"2138_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers10120514","volume":"10","author":"S Siddharth","year":"2018","unstructured":"Siddharth S, Sharma D (2018) Racial disparity and triple-negative breast cancer in African-American women: a multifaceted affair between obesity, biology, and socioeconomic determinants. Cancers (Basel) 10:514","journal-title":"Cancers (Basel)"},{"key":"2138_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2530","DOI":"10.1158\/2159-8290.CD-22-0138","volume":"12","author":"R Martini","year":"2022","unstructured":"Martini R et al (2022) African ancestry-associated gene expression profiles in triple-negative breast cancer underlie altered tumor biology and clinical outcome in women of African descent. Cancer Discov 12:2530\u20132551","journal-title":"Cancer Discov"},{"key":"2138_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11154","volume":"486","author":"S Banerji","year":"2012","unstructured":"Banerji S et al (2012) Sequence analysis of mutations and translocations across breast cancer subtypes. Nature 486:405\u2013409","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2138_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11412","volume":"490","author":"CGA Network","year":"2012","unstructured":"Network CGA (2012) Comprehensive molecular portraits of human breast tumours. Nature 490:61\u201370","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2138_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10983","volume":"486","author":"C Curtis","year":"2012","unstructured":"Curtis C et al (2012) The genomic and transcriptomic architecture of 2,000 breast tumours reveals novel subgroups. Nature 486:346\u2013352","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2138_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11143","volume":"486","author":"MJ Ellis","year":"2012","unstructured":"Ellis MJ et al (2012) Whole-genome analysis informs breast cancer response to aromatase inhibition. Nature 486:353\u2013360","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2138_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2012.04.024","volume":"149","author":"S Nik-Zainal","year":"2012","unstructured":"Nik-Zainal S et al (2012) Mutational processes molding the genomes of 21 breast cancers. Cell 149:979\u2013993","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2138_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1038\/nature17676","volume":"534","author":"S Nik-Zainal","year":"2016","unstructured":"Nik-Zainal S et al (2016) Landscape of somatic mutations in 560 breast cancer whole-genome sequences. Nature 534:47\u201354","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2138_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11017","volume":"486","author":"PJ Stephens","year":"2012","unstructured":"Stephens PJ et al (2012) The landscape of cancer genes and mutational processes in breast cancer. Nature 486:400\u2013404","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2138_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc3896","volume":"15","author":"EC Dietze","year":"2015","unstructured":"Dietze EC, Sistrunk C, Miranda-Carboni G, O\u2019Regan R, Seewaldt VL (2015) Triple-negative breast cancer in African-American women: disparities versus biology. Nat Rev Cancer 15:248\u2013254","journal-title":"Nat Rev Cancer"},{"key":"2138_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2014.57.1414","volume":"33","author":"FJ Couch","year":"2015","unstructured":"Couch FJ et al (2015) Inherited mutations in 17 breast cancer susceptibility genes among a large triple-negative breast cancer cohort unselected for family history of breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 33:304\u2013311","journal-title":"J Clin Oncol"},{"key":"2138_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1159\/000455999","volume":"12","author":"E Hahnen","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hahnen E et al (2017) Germline mutations in triple-negative breast cancer. Breast Care (Basel) 12:15\u201319","journal-title":"Breast Care (Basel)"},{"key":"2138_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-014-3195-0","volume":"149","author":"JE Churpek","year":"2015","unstructured":"Churpek JE et al (2015) Inherited predisposition to breast cancer among African American women. Breast Cancer Res Treat 149:31\u201339","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res Treat"},{"key":"2138_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1362","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.26388","volume":"118","author":"Y Zheng","year":"2012","unstructured":"Zheng Y, Zhang J, Niu Q, Huo D, Olopade OI (2012) Novel germline PALB2 truncating mutations in African American breast cancer patients. Cancer 118:1362\u20131370","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"2138_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3254","DOI":"10.1245\/s10434-013-3205-1","volume":"20","author":"R Greenup","year":"2013","unstructured":"Greenup R et al (2013) Prevalence of BRCA mutations among women with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) in a genetic counseling cohort. Ann Surg Oncol 20:3254\u20133258","journal-title":"Ann Surg Oncol"},{"key":"2138_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1007\/s004390000290","volume":"107","author":"Q Gao","year":"2000","unstructured":"Gao Q et al (2000) Prevalence of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations among clinic-based African American families with breast cancer. Hum Genet 107:186\u2013191","journal-title":"Hum Genet"},{"key":"2138_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1007\/s004390000290","volume":"107","author":"Q Gao","year":"2000","unstructured":"Gao Q et al (2000) Protein truncating BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations in African women with pre-menopausal breast cancer. Hum Genet 107:192\u2013194","journal-title":"Hum Genet"},{"key":"2138_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1584","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2014.58.5885","volume":"33","author":"R Jagsi","year":"2015","unstructured":"Jagsi R et al (2015) Concerns about cancer risk and experiences with genetic testing in a diverse population of patients with breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 33:1584\u20131591","journal-title":"J Clin Oncol"},{"key":"2138_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10933","volume":"486","author":"SP Shah","year":"2012","unstructured":"Shah SP et al (2012) The clonal and mutational evolution spectrum of primary triple-negative breast cancers. Nature 486:395\u2013399","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2138_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1526","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0582-4","volume":"25","author":"J Staaf","year":"2019","unstructured":"Staaf J et al (2019) Whole-genome sequencing of triple-negative breast cancers in a population-based clinical study. Nat Med 25:1526\u20131533","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"2138_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12477","volume":"500","author":"LB Alexandrov","year":"2013","unstructured":"Alexandrov LB et al (2013) Signatures of mutational processes in human cancer. Nature 500:415\u2013421","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2138_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-1943-3","volume":"578","author":"LB Alexandrov","year":"2020","unstructured":"Alexandrov LB et al (2020) The repertoire of mutational signatures in human cancer. Nature 578:94\u2013101","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2138_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08645","volume":"462","author":"PJ Stephens","year":"2009","unstructured":"Stephens PJ et al (2009) Complex landscapes of somatic rearrangement in human breast cancer genomes. Nature 462:1005\u20131010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"10","key":"2138_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.35821","volume":"6","author":"M Ensenyat-Mendez","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ensenyat-Mendez M, Solivellas-Pieras M, Llin\u00e0s-Arias P et al (2023) Epigenetic profiles of triple-negative breast cancers of African American and White females. JAMA Netw Open 6(10):e2335821","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"2138_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2394","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2105215","volume":"384","author":"ANJ Tutt","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tutt ANJ et al (2021) Adjuvant olaparib for patients with BRCA1- or BRCA2-mutated breast cancer. N Engl J Med 384:2394\u20132405","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2138_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1706450","volume":"377","author":"M Robson","year":"2017","unstructured":"Robson M et al (2017) Olaparib for metastatic breast cancer in patients with a germline BRCA mutation. N Engl J Med 377:523\u2013533","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2138_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6946","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-27079-w","volume":"12","author":"N Ansari-Pour","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ansari-Pour N et al (2021) Whole-genome analysis of Nigerian patients with breast cancer reveals ethnic-driven somatic evolution and distinct genomic subtypes. Nat Commun 12:6946","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"2138_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1210","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.985","volume":"43","author":"CA Haiman","year":"2011","unstructured":"Haiman CA et al (2011) A common variant at the TERT-CLPTM1L locus is associated with estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer. Nat Genet 43:1210\u20131214","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"key":"2138_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-12-0769","volume":"22","author":"JR Palmer","year":"2013","unstructured":"Palmer JR et al (2013) Genetic susceptibility loci for subtypes of breast cancer in an African American population. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 22:127\u2013134","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev"},{"key":"2138_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0058350","volume":"8","author":"J Long","year":"2013","unstructured":"Long J et al (2013) Evaluating genome-wide association study-identified breast cancer risk variants in African-American women. PLoS ONE 8:e58350","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"2138_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2022.08.022","volume":"40","author":"AH Nassar","year":"2022","unstructured":"Nassar AH et al (2022) Ancestry-driven recalibration of tumor mutational burden and disparate clinical outcomes in response to immune checkpoint inhibitors. Cancer Cell 40:1161-1172.e5","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"2138_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/8707053","volume":"2019","author":"MV Giuli","year":"2019","unstructured":"Giuli MV, Giuliani E, Screpanti I, Bellavia D, Checquolo S (2019) Notch signaling activation as a hallmark for triple-negative breast cancer subtype. J Oncol 2019:8707053","journal-title":"J Oncol"},{"key":"2138_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2008.09.030","volume":"279","author":"Z Wang","year":"2009","unstructured":"Wang Z, Li Y, Banerjee S, Sarkar FH (2009) Emerging role of notch in stem cells and cancer. Cancer Lett 279:8\u201312","journal-title":"Cancer Lett"},{"key":"2138_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-021-04116-6","volume":"12","author":"K Chen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Chen K et al (2021) The metabolic flexibility of quiescent CSC: implications for chemotherapy resistance. Cell Death Dis 12:835","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis"},{"key":"2138_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.70729","volume":"10","author":"S Siddharth","year":"2021","unstructured":"Siddharth S et al (2021) Concomitant activation of GLI1 and Notch1 contributes to racial disparity of human triple negative breast cancer progression. Elife 10:e70729","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"2138_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1038\/onc.2008.433","volume":"28","author":"ME Gonzalez","year":"2009","unstructured":"Gonzalez ME et al (2009) Downregulation of EZH2 decreases growth of estrogen receptor-negative invasive breast carcinoma and requires BRCA1. Oncogene 28:843\u2013853","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"2138_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/s10549-012-2055-z","volume":"135","author":"J Pang","year":"2012","unstructured":"Pang J et al (2012) Invasive breast carcinomas in Ghana: high frequency of high grade, basal-like histology and high EZH2 expression. Breast Cancer Res Treat 135:59\u201366","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res Treat"},{"key":"2138_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12630","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.1c00567","volume":"64","author":"C Wang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wang C et al (2021) Discovery of first-in-class dual PARP and EZH2 inhibitors for triple-negative breast cancer with wild-type BRCA. J Med Chem 64:12630\u201312650","journal-title":"J Med Chem"},{"key":"2138_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13133357","volume":"13","author":"H Zheng","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zheng H, Siddharth S, Parida S, Wu X, Sharma D (2021) Tumor microenvironment: key players in triple negative breast cancer immunomodulation. Cancers (Basel) 13:3357","journal-title":"Cancers (Basel)"},{"key":"2138_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4006","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2009.27.5388","volume":"28","author":"S Liu","year":"2010","unstructured":"Liu S, Wicha MS (2010) Targeting breast cancer stem cells. J Clin Oncol 28:4006\u20134012","journal-title":"J Clin Oncol"},{"key":"2138_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2017.06.020","volume":"188","author":"E Jiagge","year":"2018","unstructured":"Jiagge E, Chitale D, Newman LA (2018) Triple-negative breast cancer, stem cells, and African ancestry. Am J Pathol 188:271\u2013279","journal-title":"Am J Pathol"},{"issue":"3","key":"2138_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.27737","volume":"119","author":"T Schwartz","year":"2013","unstructured":"Schwartz T, Stark A, Pang J et al (2013) Expression of aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 as a marker of mammary stem cells in benign and malignant breast lesions of Ghanaian women. Cancer 119(3):488\u2013494","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"2138_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-14364-2","volume":"7","author":"W Li","year":"2017","unstructured":"Li W et al (2017) Unraveling the roles of CD44\/CD24 and ALDH1 as cancer stem cell markers in tumorigenesis and metastasis. Sci Rep 7:13856","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"2138_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-025-04218-4","volume":"16","author":"C Zhang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zhang C et al (2025) The role of the mTOR pathway in breast cancer stem cells: mechanisms and therapeutic potentials. Stem Cell Res Ther 16:156","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther"},{"key":"2138_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/bgv160","volume":"37","author":"T-YD Cheng","year":"2016","unstructured":"Cheng T-YD et al (2016) Genetic variants in the mTOR pathway and breast cancer risk in African American women. Carcinogenesis 37:49\u201355","journal-title":"Carcinogenesis"},{"key":"2138_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0115103","volume":"9","author":"Y Mao","year":"2014","unstructured":"Mao Y et al (2014) The value of tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) for predicting response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 9:e115103","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"2138_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1022","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2020.01022","volume":"10","author":"G Kim","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kim G et al (2020) The contribution of race to breast tumor microenvironment composition and disease progression. Front Oncol 10:1022","journal-title":"Front Oncol"},{"key":"2138_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15252\/embj.2019104063","volume":"39","author":"SZ Wu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wu SZ et al (2020) Stromal cell diversity associated with immune evasion in human triple-negative breast cancer. EMBO J 39:e104063","journal-title":"EMBO J"},{"key":"2138_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12032-021-01610-x","volume":"39","author":"A Nath","year":"2021","unstructured":"Nath A, Mitra S, Mistry T, Pal R, Nasare VD (2021) Molecular targets and therapeutics in chemoresistance of triple-negative breast cancer. Med Oncol 39:14","journal-title":"Med Oncol"},{"key":"2138_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3588","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-06052-0","volume":"9","author":"M Karaayvaz","year":"2018","unstructured":"Karaayvaz M et al (2018) Unravelling subclonal heterogeneity and aggressive disease states in TNBC through single-cell RNA-seq. Nat Commun 9:3588","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"2138_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2018.03.041","volume":"173","author":"C Kim","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kim C et al (2018) Chemoresistance evolution in triple-negative breast cancer delineated by single-cell sequencing. Cell 173:879-893.e13","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2138_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15252\/embj.2020107333","volume":"40","author":"B Pal","year":"2021","unstructured":"Pal B et al (2021) A single-cell RNA expression atlas of normal, preneoplastic and tumorigenic states in the human breast. EMBO J 40:e107333","journal-title":"EMBO J"},{"key":"2138_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1578","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2021.09.010","volume":"39","author":"Y Zhang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zhang Y et al (2021) Single-cell analyses reveal key immune cell subsets associated with response to PD-L1 blockade in triple-negative breast cancer. Cancer Cell 39:1578-1593.e8","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"2138_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/bies.201900221","volume":"42","author":"M Asp","year":"2020","unstructured":"Asp M, Bergenstr\u00e5hle J, Lundeberg J (2020) Spatially resolved transcriptomes-next generation tools for tissue exploration. BioEssays 42:e1900221","journal-title":"BioEssays"},{"key":"2138_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-22-2682","volume":"83","author":"R Bassiouni","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bassiouni R et al (2023) Spatial transcriptomic analysis of a diverse patient cohort reveals a conserved architecture in triple-negative breast cancer. Cancer Res 83:34\u201348","journal-title":"Cancer Res"},{"key":"2138_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1038\/s41588-021-00911-1","volume":"53","author":"SZ Wu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wu SZ et al (2021) A single-cell and spatially resolved atlas of human breast cancers. Nat Genet 53:1334\u20131347","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"key":"2138_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13235","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232113235","volume":"23","author":"H Shinohara","year":"2022","unstructured":"Shinohara H et al (2022) Spatial and quantitative analysis of tumor-associated macrophages: intratumoral CD163-\/PD-L1+ TAMs as a marker of favorable clinical outcomes in triple-negative breast cancer. Int J Mol Sci 23:13235","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"2138_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-25962-0","volume":"12","author":"D Hammerl","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hammerl D et al (2021) Spatial immunophenotypes predict response to anti-PD1 treatment and capture distinct paths of T cell evasion in triple negative breast cancer. Nat Commun 12:5668","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"2138_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13058-020-01297-4","volume":"22","author":"Y Abdou","year":"2020","unstructured":"Abdou Y et al (2020) Racial differences in CD8+ T cell infiltration in breast tumors from Black and White women. Breast Cancer Res 22:62","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res"},{"key":"2138_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"910","DOI":"10.1002\/onco.13964","volume":"26","author":"KE Reeder-Hayes","year":"2021","unstructured":"Reeder-Hayes KE, Troester MA, Wheeler SB (2021) Adherence to endocrine therapy and racial outcome disparities in breast cancer. Oncologist 26:910\u2013915","journal-title":"Oncologist"},{"key":"2138_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-022-02260-0","volume":"20","author":"KA Hirko","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hirko KA et al (2022) The impact of race and ethnicity in breast cancer\u2014disparities and implications for precision oncology. BMC Med 20:72","journal-title":"BMC Med"},{"key":"2138_CR79","unstructured":"U.S. Census Bureau (2023) U.S. Census bureau quickfacts: United States. https:\/\/www.census.gov\/quickfacts\/fact\/table\/US\/RHI725221#qf-headnote-b"},{"key":"2138_CR80","unstructured":"National Cancer Institute (NCI) (2023) Program for the assessment of clinical cancer tests (PACCT-1): trial assigning individualized options for treatment: the TAILORx trial. clinicaltrials.gov. https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/results\/NCT00310180"},{"key":"2138_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1804710","volume":"379","author":"JA Sparano","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sparano JA et al (2018) Adjuvant chemotherapy guided by a 21-gene expression assay in breast cancer. N Engl J Med 379:111\u2013121","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2138_CR82","unstructured":"ClinicalTrials.gov (2023) A study of nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitors plus abemaciclib (LY2835219) in postmenopausal women with breast cancer-study results. https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/results\/NCT02246621"},{"key":"2138_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1925","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1607303","volume":"375","author":"RS Finn","year":"2016","unstructured":"Finn RS et al (2016) Palbociclib and letrozole in advanced breast cancer. N Engl J Med 375:1925\u20131936","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2138_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1738","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1609709","volume":"375","author":"GN Hortobagyi","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hortobagyi GN et al (2016) Ribociclib as first-line therapy for HR-positive, advanced breast cancer. N Engl J Med 375:1738\u20131748","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2138_CR85","unstructured":"ClinicalTrials.gov (2023) A study to investigate atezolizumab and chemotherapy compared with placebo and chemotherapy in the neoadjuvant setting in participants with early stage triple negative breast cancer-study results. https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/results\/NCT03197935"},{"key":"2138_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1529","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2028485","volume":"384","author":"A Bardia","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bardia A et al (2021) Sacituzumab govitecan in metastatic triple-negative breast cancer. N Engl J Med 384:1529\u20131541","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2138_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2009.27.6543","volume":"29","author":"GK Ellis","year":"2011","unstructured":"Ellis GK et al (2011) Phase III comparison of standard doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide versus weekly doxorubicin and daily oral cyclophosphamide plus granulocyte colony-stimulating factor as neoadjuvant therapy for inflammatory and locally advanced breast cancer: SWOG 0012. J Clin Oncol 29:1014\u20131021","journal-title":"J Clin Oncol"},{"key":"2138_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1406281","volume":"372","author":"SM Tolaney","year":"2015","unstructured":"Tolaney SM et al (2015) Adjuvant paclitaxel and trastuzumab for node-negative, HER2-positive breast cancer. N Engl J Med 372:134\u2013141","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2138_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1814017","volume":"380","author":"G Von Minckwitz","year":"2019","unstructured":"Von Minckwitz G et al (2019) Trastuzumab emtansine for residual invasive HER2-positive breast cancer. N Engl J Med 380:617\u2013628","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2138_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1113216","volume":"366","author":"J Baselga","year":"2012","unstructured":"Baselga J et al (2012) Pertuzumab plus trastuzumab plus docetaxel for metastatic breast cancer. N Engl J Med 366:109\u2013119","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"}],"container-title":["Cancer Causes &amp; Control"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10552-026-02138-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10552-026-02138-z","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10552-026-02138-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T05:02:22Z","timestamp":1775451742000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10552-026-02138-z"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["2138"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10552-026-02138-z","relation":{},"ISSN":["0957-5243","1573-7225"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0957-5243","type":"print"},{"value":"1573-7225","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"17 October 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"30 January 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"5 March 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}},{"value":"N\/A.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Informed consent"}},{"value":"N\/A.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Research involving human participants and\/or animals"}}],"article-number":"57"}}