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We established a population-based, nationwide cohort using the Spanish birth registry between 2004 and 2016 (\n                    <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20093,678,445). We estimated daily PM\n                    <jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub>\n                    and PM\n                    <jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    concentrations for the entire pregnancy at the maternal residential address at child\u2019s delivery using spatiotemporal land use random-forest models. Linear, logistic, and distributed lag linear models were used for the different analysis. All models were stratified by maternal educational level and area-level deprivation index. Mean PM\n                    <jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub>\n                    and PM\n                    <jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    concentrations during pregnancy were 25.1 and 12.7\u00a0\u00b5g\/m\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    , respectively. Higher pregnancy-average PM\n                    <jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub>\n                    concentrations were associated with lower birthweight and increased odds of preterm birth (-7.1\u00a0g [95%CI -8.5; -5.7] and OR 1.04 [95%CI 1.02; 1.05], respectively, per 10\u00a0\u00b5g\/m\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    increase in PM\n                    <jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub>\n                    ). Similar results were found for PM\n                    <jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    , in particular for levels above 10\u00a0\u00b5g\/m\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    . These associations were stronger in infants born to mothers with lower education, particularly when combined with residence in more deprived areas. We observed some windows of susceptibility to PM\n                    <jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub>\n                    for birthweight, mainly in the third trimester of pregnancy, with a similar pattern across socioeconomic levels. We did not observe windows of susceptibility to PM\n                    <jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    . Structural policies to reduce exposure to current PM levels in pregnant women and socioeconomic inequalities are needed.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-025-01274-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]],"date-time":"2025-07-24T07:52:30Z","timestamp":1753343550000},"page":"1105-1121","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Particulate matter exposure during pregnancy and birth outcomes: exposure windows of susceptibility and socioeconomic inequalities"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"40","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8624-0333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M\u00f2nica","family":"Guxens","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1941-4310","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"N\u00faria","family":"Botella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2843-2908","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Massimo","family":"Stafoggia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9375-0147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcelle","family":"Canto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0432-0664","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sami","family":"Petricola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9275-7101","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f2nia","family":"Valent\u00edn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9421-6237","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aitana","family":"Lertxundi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8135-9079","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Somoano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7370-1842","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carmen","family":"Freire","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3889-5375","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Garc\u00eda-Alt\u00e9s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0353-3916","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elia","family":"Diez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4345-4988","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marc","family":"Mar\u00ed-Dell\u2019Olmo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3471-4928","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carmen","family":"I\u00f1iguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4402-2239","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda Jos\u00e9","family":"L\u00f3pez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6154-9142","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rebeca","family":"Ramis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2645-4230","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anne-Claire","family":"Binter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"1274_CR1","unstructured":"European Environment Agency. 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