{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,28]],"date-time":"2025-12-28T21:05:51Z","timestamp":1766955951270,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,8]],"date-time":"2025-05-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1746662400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,8]],"date-time":"2025-05-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1746662400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004482","name":"Kuwait University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FE01\/23"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FE01\/23"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004482","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Environ Monit Assess"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>NO and NO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> continuously recycle in the lower atmosphere through a complex series of reactions involving NO, VOCs, NO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>, and O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>. Therefore, the NO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\/NO<jats:sub>x<\/jats:sub> ratio can be utilized in dispersion models as an important substitute to understand the fate of NO and NO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> in the atmosphere. In this work, random forest regression was used to analyze the significance of meteorological parameters that affect the prediction of the NO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\/NO<jats:sub>x<\/jats:sub> in Kuwait\u2019s three distinct regions\u2014rural, urban, and industrial for the years 2004 to 2014, where different sources of pollution are present in each of these areas. The NO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\/NO<jats:sub>x<\/jats:sub> ratio did not change much over time for all the studied locations. The measured mean NO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> concentration in the urban regions is two times higher than that in the industrial area, implicating vehicular sources as the major contributor to air pollution compared to stationary sources. The coefficient of determination for NO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\/NO<jats:sub>x<\/jats:sub> for the four monitoring stations ranged between 0.62 and 0.81. Results indicate that although extreme temperature and intense solar radiation conditions are prominent in each of these areas, wind speed is the relatively important feature that significantly affects the NO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\/NO<jats:sub>x<\/jats:sub> ratio in urban areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-025-14077-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,8]],"date-time":"2025-05-08T16:48:15Z","timestamp":1746722895000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Fate and speciation of NOx in an arid climatic region: factors assessment"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"197","author":[{"given":"Mohammad Abdullah","family":"Alolayan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Litty Mary","family":"Abraham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ashraf Azmi","family":"Ramadan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"14077_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.03.441","volume":"672","author":"FM Al-Fadhli","year":"2019","unstructured":"Al-Fadhli, F. M., Alhajeri, N. S., Aly, A. Z., & Allen, D. T. (2019). The impact of power plant emission variability and fuel switching on the air quality of Kuwait. Science of the Total Environment, 672, 593\u2013603. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.03.441","journal-title":"Science of the Total Environment"},{"issue":"12","key":"14077_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14917","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-11481-w","volume":"28","author":"A Al-Hemoud","year":"2021","unstructured":"Al-Hemoud, A., Gasana, J., Alajeel, A., Alhamoud, E., Al-Shatti, A., & Al-Khayat, A. (2021). Ambient exposure of O3 and NO2 and associated health risk in Kuwait. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 28(12), 14917\u201314926. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11356-020-11481-w","journal-title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research International"},{"issue":"6","key":"14077_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos12060678","volume":"12","author":"A Al-Hurban","year":"2021","unstructured":"Al-Hurban, A., Khader, S., Alsaber, A., & Pan, J. (2021). Air quality assessment in the State of Kuwait during 2012 to 2017. Atmosphere, 12(6), 678. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/atmos12060678","journal-title":"Atmosphere"},{"issue":"7","key":"14077_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos13071144","volume":"13","author":"H Alkabbani","year":"2022","unstructured":"Alkabbani, H., Ramadan, A., Zhu, Q., & Elkamel, A. (2022). An improved air quality index machine learning-based forecasting with multivariate data imputation approach. Atmosphere, 13(7), 1144. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/atmos13071144","journal-title":"Atmosphere"},{"key":"14077_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2012.11.090","volume":"448","author":"MA Alolayan","year":"2013","unstructured":"Alolayan, M. A., Brown, K. W., Evans, J. S., Bouhamra, W. S., & Koutrakis, P. (2013). Source apportionment of fine particles in Kuwait City. Science of the Total Environment, 448, 14\u201325. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2012.11.090","journal-title":"Science of the Total Environment"},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Alolayan, M. A., Almutairi, A., Aladwani, S. M., & Alkhamees, S. (2023). Investigating major sources of air pollution and improving spatiotemporal forecast accuracy using supervised machine learning and a proxy. Journal of Engineering Research, 100126. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jer.2023.100126","key":"14077_CR6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jer.2023.100126"},{"issue":"11","key":"14077_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1262","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos11111262","volume":"11","author":"E Berezina","year":"2020","unstructured":"Berezina, E., Moiseenko, K., Skorokhod, A., Pankratova, N. V., Belikov, I., Belousov, V., & Elansky, N. F. (2020). Impact of VOCs and NOx on ozone formation in Moscow. Atmosphere, 11(11), 1262. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/atmos11111262","journal-title":"Atmosphere"},{"issue":"4","key":"14077_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1935","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18041935","volume":"18","author":"TH Bhat","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bhat, T. H., Jiawen, G., & Farzaneh, H. (2021). Air Pollution Health Risk Assessment (AP-HRA), principles. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4), 1935. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph18041935","journal-title":"International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"},{"key":"14077_CR9","volume-title":"Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Why and how they are controlled","author":"R Blaszczak","year":"1999","unstructured":"Blaszczak, R. (1999). Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Why and how they are controlled. Environmental Protection Agency."},{"unstructured":"Bower, J. S., Broughton, G. F., & Willis, P. G. (1993). The chemistry and deposition of nitrogen species in the troposphere. In: A. T. Cocks, (Ed.), Measurements of Urban Photochemical Oxidants\u00a0(pp. 23\u201344). Leatherhead: Special Publication 115. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.","key":"14077_CR10"},{"issue":"5","key":"14077_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-016-0455-7","volume":"10","author":"J Bryant","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bryant, J., Owen, R. C., Graham, S., Snyder, M., McDow, S., Oakes, M., & Kimbrough, S. (2017). Estimation of on-road NO2 concentrations, NO2\/NOX ratios, and related roadway gradients from near-road monitoring data. Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health, 10(5), 611\u2013625. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11869-016-0455-7","journal-title":"Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health"},{"issue":"32","key":"14077_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2011.06.070","volume":"45","author":"AM Chaney","year":"2011","unstructured":"Chaney, A. M., Cryer, D. J., Nicholl, E. J., & Seakins, P. W. (2011). NO and NO2 interconversion downwind of two different line sources in suburban environments. Atmospheric Environment, 45(32), 5863\u20135871. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2011.06.070","journal-title":"Atmospheric Environment"},{"key":"14077_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2015.11.042","volume":"126","author":"B Degraeuwe","year":"2016","unstructured":"Degraeuwe, B., Thunis, P., Clappier, A., Weiss, M., Lefebvre, W., Janssen, S., & Vranckx, S. (2016). Impact of passenger car NOx emissions and NO2 fractions on urban NO2 pollution \u2013 Scenario analysis for the city of Antwerp, Belgium. Atmospheric Environment, 126, 218\u2013224. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2015.11.042","journal-title":"Atmospheric Environment"},{"issue":"11","key":"14077_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.7176\/JEES","volume":"8","author":"AG Gahalla","year":"2018","unstructured":"Gahalla, A. G., Xu, B., & Osman, G. A. (2018). Concentration of NO2 and SO2 in Atmospheric EnvironmentAround Oil Refinery: A Case Study in North Khartoum,\u00a0Sudan. Journal of Environment and Earth Science, 8(11), 1\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7176\/JEES","journal-title":"Journal of Environment and Earth Science"},{"key":"14077_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.uclim.2017.07.002","volume":"21","author":"K Gasmi","year":"2017","unstructured":"Gasmi, K., Aljalal, A., Al-Basheer, W., & Abdulahi, M. (2017). Analysis of NOx, NO and NO2 ambient levels in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Urban Climate, 21, 232\u2013242. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.uclim.2017.07.002","journal-title":"Urban Climate"},{"key":"14077_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1038\/s41561-017-0009-0","volume":"10","author":"SK Grange","year":"2017","unstructured":"Grange, S. K., Lewis, A. C., Moller, S. J., & Carslaw, D. C. (2017). Lower vehicular primary emissions of NO2 in Europe than assumed in policy projections. Nature Geoscience, 10, 914\u2013918. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41561-017-0009-0","journal-title":"Nature Geoscience"},{"issue":"20","key":"14077_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2006.03.020","volume":"40","author":"C Hueglin","year":"2006","unstructured":"Hueglin, C., Buchmann, B., & Weber, R. O. (2006). Long-term observation of real-world road traffic emission factors on a motorway in Switzerland. Atmospheric Environment, 40(20), 3696\u20133709. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2006.03.020","journal-title":"Atmospheric Environment"},{"unstructured":"Jarvis, D. J., Adamkiewicz, G., Heroux, M.-E., Rapp, R., & Kelly, F. J. (2010). Nitrogen dioxide. In:\u00a0W. H. Organization, WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: Selected pollutants. Geneva: World Health Organization, (pp\u00a0201\u2013248).\u00a0Retrieved December 10, 2024, from http:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789289002134","key":"14077_CR18"},{"key":"14077_CR19","volume-title":"Flying chemistry. Studies of the atmospheric chemistry of air pollutants using aircraft","author":"AS Kallend","year":"1995","unstructured":"Kallend, A. S. (1995). Flying chemistry. Studies of the atmospheric chemistry of air pollutants using aircraft. National Power Publication."},{"issue":"5","key":"14077_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1097\/CM9.0000000000002014","volume":"135","author":"H Kan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kan, H. (2022). World Health Organization air quality guidelines 2021: Implication for air pollution control and climate goal in China. Chinese Medical Journal, 135(5), 513\u2013515. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/CM9.0000000000002014","journal-title":"Chinese Medical Journal"},{"issue":"8","key":"14077_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1080\/10962247.2013.795919","volume":"63","author":"ES Kimbrough","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kimbrough, E. S., Baldauf, R. W., & Watkins, N. (2013). Seasonal and diurnal analysis of NO2 concentrations from a long-duration study conducted in Las Vegas, Nevada. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 63(8), 934\u2013942. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10962247.2013.795919","journal-title":"Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association"},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kimbrough, S., Owen, R. C., Snyder, M., & Richmond-Bryantd, J. (2017). NO to NO2 conversion rate analysis and implications for dispersion model chemistry methods using Las Vegas, Nevada near-road field measurements. Atmos Environ, 23\u201324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2017.06.027","key":"14077_CR22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2017.06.027"},{"issue":"19","key":"14077_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4069","DOI":"10.3390\/app9194069","volume":"9","author":"H Liu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Liu, H., Li, Q., Yu, D., & Gu, Y. (2019). Air quality index and air pollutant concentration prediction based on machine learning algorithms. Applied Sciences, 9(19), 4069. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app9194069","journal-title":"Applied Sciences"},{"unstructured":"Luhana, L., Middleton, D. R., & Sokhi, R. S. (2007). Processes and parameters influencing the oxidation of SO2and NOX in plumes.\u00a0Bristol: Environment Agency.","key":"14077_CR24"},{"issue":"1","key":"14077_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.3844\/ajassp.2020.36.49","volume":"17","author":"HB Matar","year":"2020","unstructured":"Matar, H. B., Almutairi, T., & Al-Mutairi, N. Z. (2020). Comparison of air quality in Kuwait urban and industrial areas. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 17(1), 36\u201349. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3844\/ajassp.2020.36.49","journal-title":"American Journal of Applied Sciences"},{"unstructured":"Middleton, D. R., Luhana, L., & Sokhi, R. S. (2007). Review of methods for NO to NO2 conversion in plumes at short ranges.\u00a0Bristol: Environment Agency.","key":"14077_CR26"},{"key":"14077_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-89083-6","volume-title":"Handbook of diesel engines","author":"K Mollenhauer","year":"2010","unstructured":"Mollenhauer, K., & Johnson, K. G. (2010). Handbook of diesel engines. Springer. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-540-89083-6"},{"issue":"11","key":"14077_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1007\/s13762-020-03076-2","volume":"19","author":"A Ramdan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ramdan, A. (2021). Detailed analysis of power generation and water desalination sector emissions-part 1: Criteria pollutants and BTEX. International journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 19(11), 763\u2013774. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13762-020-03076-2","journal-title":"International journal of Environmental Science and Technology"},{"issue":"3","key":"14077_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-022-01168-1","volume":"15","author":"M Ravina","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ravina, M., Caramitti, G., Panepinto, D., & Zanetti, M. C. (2022). Air quality and photochemical reactions: Analysis of NOx and NO2 concentrations in the urban area of Turin Italy. Air Quality Atmosphere & Health, 15(3), 541\u2013558. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11869-022-01168-1","journal-title":"Air Quality Atmosphere & Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"14077_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.5094\/APR.2012.027","volume":"3","author":"D Roberts-Semple","year":"2012","unstructured":"Roberts-Semple, D., Song, F., & Gao, Y. (2012). Seasonal characteristics of ambient nitrogen oxides and ground\u2013level ozone in metropolitan northeastern New Jersey. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 3(2), 247\u2013257. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5094\/APR.2012.027","journal-title":"Atmospheric Pollution Research"},{"issue":"10","key":"14077_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apr.2022.101563","volume":"13","author":"JT Shaw","year":"2022","unstructured":"Shaw, J. T., Allen, G., Topping, D., Grange, S. K., Barker, P., Pitt, J., & Ward, R. S. (2022). A case study application of machine-learning for the detection of greenhouse gas emission sources. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 13(10), 101563. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.apr.2022.101563","journal-title":"Atmospheric Pollution Research"},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Shehab, M., & Moinuddin, A. (2020). Long-term measurements of toluene and NO2 at selected locations in Kuwait. Journal of Pollution, 3(2). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.37421\/Pollution.2020.3.119","key":"14077_CR32","DOI":"10.37421\/Pollution.2020.3.119"},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Taghizadeh, F., Mokhtarani, B., & Rahmanian, N. (2023). Air pollution in Iran: The current status and potential solutions. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 195(737). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10661-023-11296-5","key":"14077_CR33","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-023-11296-5"},{"issue":"45","key":"14077_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16032","DOI":"10.1021\/ie402417p","volume":"52","author":"S Tan","year":"2013","unstructured":"Tan, S., & Piri, M. (2013). Modeling the solubility of nitrogen dioxide in water using perturbed-chain statistical associating fluid theory. I & EC research, 52(45), 16032\u201316043. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/ie402417p","journal-title":"I & EC research"},{"unstructured":"WHO. (2024). Ambient (outdoor) air pollution. World Health Organization.\u00a0Retrieved December 10, 2024, from\u00a0http:\/\/who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health","key":"14077_CR35"}],"container-title":["Environmental Monitoring and Assessment"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10661-025-14077-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10661-025-14077-4\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10661-025-14077-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,7]],"date-time":"2025-06-07T09:10:16Z","timestamp":1749287416000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10661-025-14077-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,8]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["14077"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10661-025-14077-4","relation":{},"ISSN":["1573-2959"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1573-2959"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,8]]},"assertion":[{"value":"29 December 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"29 April 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 May 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"DeclarationsDeclarations"}},{"value":"All authors have read, understood, and have complied as applicable with the statement on \u201cEthical responsibilities of Authors.\u201d","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interest"}}],"article-number":"640"}}