{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T12:24:23Z","timestamp":1787747063254,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785369600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785369600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001773","name":"University of New South Wales","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001773","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Res Child Adolesc Psychopathol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Parent-child behavioral synchrony\u2014the dyad\u2019s moment-to-moment coordination of behavior and emotion\u2014supports children\u2019s socioemotional development, yet most evidence comes from cross-sectional community samples using global indices, limiting clinical insight for heterogeneous conduct problems (CP). This prospective study tested baseline differences and treatment-related change in discrete synchrony facets among clinic-referred children with CP, comparing CP-only, primary callous-unemotional (CU; CU without internalizing problems), and secondary CU (CU with internalizing problems) variants. Mother-child and father-child dyads of\n                    <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u2009234 children aged 2\u20137 years (74% boys) completed standardized play tasks that were coded into four Mutually Responsive Orientation dimensions (Coordinated Routines, Mutual Cooperation, Harmonious Communication, Emotional Ambience); parents completed questionnaires assessing child CP, CU traits, and internalizing symptoms. A subsample (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u2009142) received parent training and was re-assessed post-treatment and at three-month follow-up. At baseline, mother-child Harmonious Communication and Emotional Ambience were significantly lower in secondary CU than in primary CU and CP-only groups. Parent training significantly improved synchrony across dyads from baseline to post-treatment, with maintenance for mothers. However, despite overall gains, synchrony remained lower for secondary CU than primary CU variants at follow-up (mothers), and father-child Harmonious Communication deteriorated from post-treatment to follow-up in secondary CU relative to improvement in primary CU. Findings indicate variant-specific synchrony deficits, especially affective facets, in secondary CU and attenuated normalization following parent training, refining etiological accounts and highlighting the need to tailor synchrony-focused treatment targets for CP subgroups.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-026-01491-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T00:10:48Z","timestamp":1785370248000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Out of Sync: Parent-Child Behavioral Synchrony in Conduct Problem Subgroups"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"54","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4837-5103","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvana","family":"Kaouar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9606-066X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georgette E.","family":"Fleming","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6160-0489","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bryan","family":"Neo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-5057-6994","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Campbell","family":"McDonogh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-1356-1717","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucy","family":"Koh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9753-6316","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amanda B.","family":"Chan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2841-5245","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lily","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-6262-1872","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sasha","family":"Forrest","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3260-1225","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David J.","family":"Hawes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6296-8306","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valsamma","family":"Eapen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4325-6108","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eva R.","family":"Kimonis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"1491_CR1","unstructured":"Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000). ; 2001). Manual for the ASEBA Preschool\/ School-Age Forms & Profiles. University of Vermont Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families."},{"key":"1491_CR3","unstructured":"Ainsworth, M. D., Bell, S. M., & Stayton, D. J. (1971). Individual differences in strange-situation behaviour of one-year-olds. In H. R. Schaffer (Ed.), The origins of human social relations (pp. 17\u201357). Academic."},{"key":"1491_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Erlbaum. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9781315802428","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315802428"},{"issue":"5","key":"1491_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.42.5.833","volume":"42","author":"N Aksan","year":"2006","unstructured":"Aksan, N., Kochanska, G., & Ortmann, M. R. (2006). Mutually responsive orientation between parents and their young children: Toward methodological advances in the science of relationships. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 833\u2013848. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0012-1649.42.5.833","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"issue":"2","key":"1491_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1080\/03004430.2012.669756","volume":"183","author":"HN Ambrose","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ambrose, H. N., & Menna, R. (2013). Physical and relational aggression in young children: The role of mother-child interactional synchrony. Early Child Development and Care, 183(2), 207\u2013222. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/03004430.2012.669756","journal-title":"Early Child Development and Care"},{"key":"1491_CR6","unstructured":"Australian Bureau of Statistics (2021). Census data. https:\/\/abs.gov.au\/census\/find-census-data\/search-by-area, accessed 27 November 2024."},{"issue":"3","key":"1491_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1007\/s10567-022-00383-7","volume":"25","author":"SL Birk","year":"2022","unstructured":"Birk, S. L., Stewart, L., & Olino, T. M. (2022). Parent\u2013child synchrony after early childhood: A systematic review. Child and Family Psychology Review, 25(3), 529\u2013551. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10567-022-00383-7","journal-title":"Child and Family Psychology Review"},{"issue":"3","key":"1491_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14030856","volume":"14","author":"A Calderone","year":"2025","unstructured":"Calderone, A., Piccolo, A., Latella, D., De Luca, R., Corallo, F., Quartarone, A., Militi, A., Cucinotta, F., & Calabr\u00f2, R. S. (2025). Parent\u2013Child Interaction Therapy for Disruptive behavior: A systematic review of effectiveness in different settings. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 14(3), 856. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm14030856","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Medicine"},{"issue":"9","key":"1491_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1037\/pas0001257","volume":"35","author":"AB Chan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chan, A. B., Fleming, G. E., Kaouar, S., & Kimonis, E. R. (2023). The Measure of Empathy in Early Childhood: Testing the reliability, validity, and clinical utility of scores in early childhood. Psychological Assessment, 35(9), 791\u2013803. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/pas0001257","journal-title":"Psychological Assessment"},{"issue":"5","key":"1491_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1494","DOI":"10.1007\/s10578-023-01634-6","volume":"56","author":"V Chau","year":"2025","unstructured":"Chau, V., Eapen, V., Hawkins, E., & Kohlhoff, J. (2025). Parenting characteristics and callous-unemotional traits in children aged 0\u20136 years: A systematic narrative review. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 56(5), 1494\u20131519. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10578-023-01634-6","journal-title":"Child Psychiatry & Human Development"},{"issue":"4","key":"1491_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.3390\/children11040419","volume":"11","author":"E Ciucci","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ciucci, E., Baroncelli, A., Facci, C., Righi, S., & Frick, P. J. (2024). Callous-unemotional traits and emotion perception accuracy and bias in youths. Children, 11(4), 419. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children11040419","journal-title":"Children"},{"issue":"1","key":"1491_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/s10567-020-00329-x","volume":"24","author":"SG Craig","year":"2021","unstructured":"Craig, S. G., Goulter, N., & Moretti, M. M. (2021). A systematic review of primary and secondary callous-unemotional traits and psychopathy variants in youth. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 24(1), 65\u201391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10567-020-00329-x","journal-title":"Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review"},{"issue":"2","key":"1491_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1007\/s10578-021-01271-x","volume":"54","author":"SG Craig","year":"2023","unstructured":"Craig, S. G., Goulter, N., Andrade, B. F., & McMahon, R. J. (2023). Developmental precursors of primary and secondary callous-unemotional traits in youth. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 54(2), 582\u2013596. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10578-021-01271-x","journal-title":"Child Psychiatry and Human Development"},{"issue":"2","key":"1491_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1080\/14616734.2024.2349569","volume":"26","author":"SG Craig","year":"2024","unstructured":"Craig, S. G., Dawson, A., Chen, S., Moretti, M. M., & Pepler, D. J. (2024). A systematic review of callous-unemotional traits and attachment in children and adolescents. Attachment & Human Development, 26(2), 133\u2013158. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/14616734.2024.2349569","journal-title":"Attachment & Human Development"},{"issue":"3","key":"1491_CR16","first-page":"102","volume":"16","author":"RM Crotwell","year":"2013","unstructured":"Crotwell, R. M., Hernandez-Reif, M., & Curtner-Smith, M. L. (2013). A brief play intervention to improve synchronous interactions and play skills in low income mother-child dyads. Dialog, 16(3), 102\u2013126. https:\/\/journals.charlotte.edu\/dialog\/article\/view\/116\/0","journal-title":"Dialog"},{"issue":"4","key":"1491_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"962","DOI":"10.1111\/famp.12259","volume":"56","author":"M Davis","year":"2017","unstructured":"Davis, M., Bilms, J., & Suveg, C. (2017). In sync and in control: A meta-analysis of parent-child positive behavioral synchrony and youth self\u2010regulation. Family Process, 56(4), 962\u2013980. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/famp.12259","journal-title":"Family Process"},{"issue":"1","key":"1491_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1037\/a0026837","volume":"26","author":"S De Rubeis","year":"2012","unstructured":"De Rubeis, S., & Granic, I. (2012). Understanding treatment effectiveness for aggressive youth: The importance of regulation in mother-child interactions. Journal of Family Psychology, 26(1), 66\u201375. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0026837","journal-title":"Journal of Family Psychology"},{"issue":"6","key":"1491_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1023\/b:jacp.0000047210.81880.14","volume":"32","author":"K Deater-Deckard","year":"2004","unstructured":"Deater-Deckard, K., Atzaba-Poria, N., & Pike, A. (2004). Mother- and father-child mutuality in Anglo and Indian British families: A link with lower externalizing problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32(6), 609\u2013620. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/b:jacp.0000047210.81880.14","journal-title":"Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology"},{"issue":"6","key":"1491_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1037\/pas0000698","volume":"31","author":"J Deng","year":"2019","unstructured":"Deng, J., Wang, M. C., Zhang, X., Shou, Y., Gao, Y., & Luo, J. (2019). The Inventory of Callous Unemotional Traits: A reliability generalization meta-analysis. Psychological Assessment, 31(6), 765\u2013780. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/pas0000698","journal-title":"Psychological Assessment"},{"key":"1491_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.13848","author":"G E Fleming","year":"2023","unstructured":"E. Fleming, G. (2023). Commentary: Optimism and guidance for improving treatment effects among children with callous-unemotional traits - Reflections on Perlstein et al. (2023). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/jcpp.13848","journal-title":"Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry"},{"key":"1491_CR21","unstructured":"Eyberg, S. M., & Funderburk, B. (2011). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy protocol. PCIT International."},{"key":"1491_CR22","unstructured":"Eyberg, S. M., & Pincus, D. (1999). Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory and Sutter-Eyberg Student Behavior Inventory-Revised: Professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources."},{"issue":"2","key":"1491_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1007\/s10578-013-0389-3","volume":"45","author":"KA Fanti","year":"2014","unstructured":"Fanti, K. A., & Centifanti, L. C. M. (2014). Childhood callous-unemotional traits moderate the relation between parenting distress and conduct problems over time. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 45(2), 173\u2013184. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10578-013-0389-3","journal-title":"Child Psychiatry and Human Development"},{"issue":"1","key":"1491_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1037\/ort0000143","volume":"87","author":"KA Fanti","year":"2017","unstructured":"Fanti, K. A., Andershed, H., Colins, O. F., & Sikki, M. (2017). Stability and change in callous-unemotional traits: Longitudinal associations with potential individual and contextual risk and protective factors. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 87(1), 62\u201375. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/ort0000143","journal-title":"American Journal of Orthopsychiatry"},{"issue":"5","key":"1491_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.3390\/children11050546","volume":"11","author":"KA Fanti","year":"2024","unstructured":"Fanti, K. A., Mavrommatis, I., D\u00edaz-V\u00e1zquez, B., L\u00f3pez-Romero, L., Romero, E., \u00c1lvarez-Voces, M., Colins, O. F., Andershed, H., & Thomson, N. (2024). Fearlessness as an underlying mechanism leading to conduct problems: Testing the INTERFEAR model in a community sample in Spain. Children, 11(5), 546. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children11050546","journal-title":"Children"},{"issue":"4","key":"1491_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1080\/14616734.2013.782650","volume":"15","author":"R Feldman","year":"2013","unstructured":"Feldman, R., Bamberger, E., & Kanat-Maymon, Y. (2013). Parent-specific reciprocity from infancy to adolescence shapes children\u2019s social competence and dialogical skills. Attachment & Human Development, 15(4), 407\u2013423. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/14616734.2013.782650","journal-title":"Attachment & Human Development"},{"key":"1491_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fleming, G. E., & Kimonis, E. R. (2018). PCIT for Children with Callous-Unemotional Traits. In L. N. Niec (Ed.), Handbook of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy: Innovations and applications for research and practice (pp. 19\u201334). Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-97698-3_2"},{"issue":"6","key":"1491_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beth.2022.07.001","volume":"53","author":"GE Fleming","year":"2022","unstructured":"Fleming, G. E., Neo, B., Briggs, N. E., Kaouar, S., Frick, P. J., & Kimonis, E. R. (2022). Parent training adapted to the needs of children with callous-unemotional traits: A randomized controlled trial. Behavior Therapy, 53(6), 1265\u20131281. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.beth.2022.07.001","journal-title":"Behavior Therapy"},{"issue":"11","key":"1491_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1581","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-023-01112-6","volume":"51","author":"GE Fleming","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fleming, G. E., Neo, B., Kaouar, S., & Kimonis, E. R. (2023). Treatment outcomes of children with primary versus secondary callous-unemotional traits. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 51(11), 1581\u20131594. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10802-023-01112-6","journal-title":"Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology"},{"key":"1491_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beth.2025.02.004","author":"GE Fleming","year":"2025","unstructured":"Fleming, G. E., Sawrikar, V., Kaouar, S., Neo, B., McDonogh, C., & Kimonis, E. R. (2025). The impact of parental cognitions on outcomes of behavioral parent training for children with conduct problems. Behavior Therapy. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.beth.2025.02.004","journal-title":"Behavior Therapy"},{"issue":"1","key":"1491_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/a0033076","volume":"140","author":"PJ Frick","year":"2014","unstructured":"Frick, P. J., Ray, J. V., Thornton, L. C., & Kahn, R. E. (2014). Can callous-unemotional traits enhance the understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of serious conduct problems in children and adolescents? A comprehensive review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(1), 1\u201357. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0033076","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"issue":"4","key":"1491_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/s0273-2297(02)00500-2","volume":"22","author":"AW Harrist","year":"2002","unstructured":"Harrist, A. W., & Waugh, R. M. (2002). Dyadic synchrony: Its structure and function in children\u2019s development. Developmental Review, 22(4), 555\u2013592. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0273-2297(02)00500-2","journal-title":"Developmental Review"},{"issue":"9","key":"1491_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2010.02220.x","volume":"51","author":"DM Healey","year":"2010","unstructured":"Healey, D. M., Gopin, C. B., Grossman, B. R., Campbell, S. B., & Halperin, J. M. (2010). Mother-child dyadic synchrony is associated with better functioning in hyperactive\/inattentive preschool children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(9), 1058\u20131066. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2010.02220.x","journal-title":"Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry"},{"key":"1491_CR36","unstructured":"Henery, J., Fleming, G. E., Neo, B., Kaouar, S., & Kimonis, E. R. (2025). Validation of the Parental Affection\/Warmth Scale (PAWS) in parents of young children with varying levels of conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits [Manuscript submitted for publication]. School of Psychology, University of New South Wales."},{"issue":"10","key":"1491_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0290089","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0290089","volume":"18","author":"SI Hogye","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hogye, S. I., Lucassen, N., Helmerhorst, K. O. W., Vrolijk, P., & Keizer, R. (2023). Changes in coercive parenting and child externalizing behavior across COVID-19 and the moderating role of parent-child attachment relationship quality. PLOS ONE, 18(10), e0290089. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0290089","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"issue":"7","key":"1491_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1876","DOI":"10.1007\/s10826-014-9989-1","volume":"24","author":"N Im-Bolter","year":"2014","unstructured":"Im-Bolter, N., Anam, M., & Cohen, N. J. (2014). Mother-child synchrony and child problem behavior. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(7), 1876\u20131885. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10826-014-9989-1","journal-title":"Journal of Child and Family Studies"},{"issue":"1","key":"1491_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.25.1.12","volume":"25","author":"RA Isabella","year":"1989","unstructured":"Isabella, R. A., Belsky, J., & Von Eye, A. (1989). Origins of infant-mother attachment: An examination of interactional synchrony during the infant\u2019s first year. Developmental Psychology, 25(1), 12\u201321. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0012-1649.25.1.12","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"1491_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Johnston, C., Park, J. L., & Miller, N. V. (2018). Parental cognitions: Relations to parenting and child behavior. In M. R. Sanders, & A. Morawska (Eds.), Handbook of parenting and child development across the lifespan. Springer. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-94598-9_17","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-94598-9_17"},{"issue":"2","key":"1491_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-023-01111-7","volume":"52","author":"S Kaouar","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kaouar, S., Fleming, G. E., Neo, B., Hawes, D. J., Eapen, V., & Kimonis, E. R. (2023). Dimensions of warm parenting attributions differentiate conduct problem subtypes in young children. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 52(2), 223\u2013236. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10802-023-01111-7","journal-title":"Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology"},{"issue":"4","key":"1491_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1007\/s10567-023-00455-2","volume":"26","author":"ER Kimonis","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kimonis, E. R. (2023). The Emotionally Sensitive Child-Adverse Parenting Experiences-Allostatic (Over)Load (ESCAPE-ALL) model for the development of secondary psychopathic traits. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 26(4), 1097\u20131114. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10567-023-00455-2","journal-title":"Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review"},{"issue":"4","key":"1491_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-015-0075-y","volume":"44","author":"ER Kimonis","year":"2016","unstructured":"Kimonis, E. R., Fanti, K. A., Anastassiou-Hadjicharalambous, X., Mertan, B., Goulter, N., & Katsimicha, E. (2016). Can callous-unemotional traits be reliably measured in preschoolers? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(4), 625\u2013638. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10802-015-0075-y","journal-title":"Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology"},{"issue":"sup1","key":"1491_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S347","DOI":"10.1080\/15374416.2018.1479966","volume":"48","author":"ER Kimonis","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kimonis, E. R., Fleming, G., Briggs, N., Brouwer-French, L., Frick, P. J., Hawes, D. J., Bagner, D. M., Thomas, R., & Dadds, M. (2019). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy adapted for preschoolers with callous-unemotional traits: An open trial pilot study. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 48(sup1), S347\u2013S361. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15374416.2018.1479966","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology"},{"issue":"1","key":"1491_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2004.00348.x","volume":"46","author":"G Kochanska","year":"2005","unstructured":"Kochanska, G., Forman, D. R., Aksan, N., & Dunbar, S. B. (2005). Pathways to conscience: Early mother-child mutually responsive orientation and children\u2019s moral emotion, conduct, and cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(1), 19\u201334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2004.00348.x","journal-title":"Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry"},{"issue":"11","key":"1491_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12084","volume":"54","author":"G Kochanska","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kochanska, G., Kim, S., Boldt, L. J., & Yoon, J. E. (2013). Children\u2019s callous-unemotional traits moderate links between their positive relationships with parents at preschool age and externalizing behavior problems at early school age. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(11), 1251\u20131260. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/jcpp.12084","journal-title":"Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry"},{"issue":"4","key":"1491_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-014-9938-x","volume":"43","author":"G Kochanska","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kochanska, G., Brock, R. L., Chen, K., Aksan, N., & Anderson, S. W. (2015). Paths from mother-child and father-child relationships to externalizing behavior problems in children differing in electrodermal reactivity: A longitudinal study from infancy to age 10. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(4), 721\u2013734. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10802-014-9938-x","journal-title":"Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology"},{"issue":"6","key":"1491_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1007\/s10578-013-0369-7","volume":"44","author":"R Kok","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kok, R., Linting, M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Van IJzendoorn, M. H., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Hofman, A., Verhulst, F. C., & Tiemeier, H. (2013). Maternal sensitivity and internalizing problems: Evidence from two longitudinal studies in early childhood. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 44(6), 751\u2013765. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10578-013-0369-7","journal-title":"Child Psychiatry & Human Development"},{"key":"1491_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1176560","DOI":"10.3389\/frcha.2023.1176560","volume":"2","author":"LJG Krijnen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Krijnen, L. J. G., Verhoeven, M., & van Baar, A. L. (2023). Observing mother-child interaction in a free-play vs. a structured task context and its relationship with preterm and term born toddlers\u2019 psychosocial outcomes. Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2, 1176560. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frcha.2023.1176560","journal-title":"Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry"},{"issue":"1","key":"1491_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12288","volume":"86","author":"EM Leerkes","year":"2015","unstructured":"Leerkes, E. M., Supple, A. J., O\u2019Brien, M., Calkins, S. D., Haltigan, J. D., Wong, M. S., & Fortuna, K. (2015). Antecedents of maternal sensitivity during distressing tasks: Integrating attachment, social information processing, and psychobiological perspectives. Child Development, 86(1), 94\u2013111. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cdev.12288","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"issue":"4","key":"1491_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.20230256","volume":"181","author":"E Leibenluft","year":"2024","unstructured":"Leibenluft, E., Allen, L. E., Althoff, R. R., Brotman, M. A., Burke, J. D., Carlson, G. A., Dickstein, D. P., Dougherty, L. R., Evans, S. C., Kircanski, K., Klein, D. N., Malone, E. P., Mazefsky, C. A., Nigg, J., Perlman, S. B., Pine, D. S., Roy, A. K., Salum, G. A., Shakeshaft, A., & Stringaris, A. (2024). Irritability in youths: A critical integrative review. American Journal of Psychiatry, 181(4), 275\u2013290. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1176\/appi.ajp.20230256","journal-title":"American Journal of Psychiatry"},{"issue":"6","key":"1491_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1970","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13051","volume":"89","author":"P Leijten","year":"2018","unstructured":"Leijten, P., Melendez-Torres, G. J., Gardner, F., Van Aar, J., Schulz, S., & Overbeek, G. (2018). Are relationship enhancement and behavior management the golden couple for disruptive child behavior? Two meta\u2010analyses. Child development, 89(6), 1970\u20131982. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cdev.13051","journal-title":"Child development"},{"issue":"4","key":"1491_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appdev.2023.101594","volume":"89","author":"Y Li","year":"2023","unstructured":"Li, Y., An, R., Feng, Z., Ding, Y., Chi, X., & Zhang, X. (2023). Parent-child relationships and early childhood irritability: A longitudinal moderated moderation model. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 89(4), 101594. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.appdev.2023.101594","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"1491_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.2147\/prbm.s207370","volume":"12","author":"CC Lieneman","year":"2019","unstructured":"Lieneman, C. C., Quetsch, L. B., Theodorou, L. L., Newton, K. A., & McNeil, C. B. (2019). Reconceptualizing attrition in Parent\u2013Child Interaction Therapy: Dropouts demonstrate impressive improvements. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 12, 543\u2013555. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2147\/prbm.s207370","journal-title":"Psychology Research and Behavior Management"},{"issue":"4","key":"1491_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1007\/s10567-008-0038-8","volume":"11","author":"JWT Mah","year":"2008","unstructured":"Mah, J. W. T., & Johnston, C. (2008). Parental social cognitions: Considerations in the acceptability of and engagement in behavioral parent training. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 11(4), 218\u2013236. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10567-008-0038-8","journal-title":"Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review"},{"issue":"2","key":"1491_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.3390\/children13020303","volume":"13","author":"AP Martinez-Cedillo","year":"2026","unstructured":"Martinez-Cedillo, A. P., Wagner, C. A. D., Albores-Gallo, L., & Foulsham, T. (2026). Callous\u2013unemotional traits and their association with neurodevelopmental disorders: Insights from gaze behaviour during emotion recognition. Children, 13(2), 303. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/children13020303","journal-title":"Children"},{"issue":"6","key":"1491_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1880","DOI":"10.1007\/s10826-015-0356-7","volume":"25","author":"RL Miller-Slough","year":"2015","unstructured":"Miller-Slough, R. L., Dunsmore, J. C., Ollendick, T. H., & Greene, R. W. (2015). Parent-child synchrony in children with oppositional defiant disorder: Associations with treatment outcomes. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(6), 1880\u20131888. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10826-015-0356-7","journal-title":"Journal of Child and Family Studies"},{"issue":"1","key":"1491_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1093\/scan\/nsad001","volume":"18","author":"JK Morgan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Morgan, J. K., Santosa, H., Conner, K. K., Fridley, R. M., Forbes, E. E., Iyengar, S., & Huppert, T. J. (2023). Mother-child neural synchronization is time linked to mother-child positive affective state matching. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 18(1), 187\u2013195. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/scan\/nsad001","journal-title":"Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience"},{"issue":"4","key":"1491_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1016\/s0163-6383(98)90043-1","volume":"21","author":"EB Owens","year":"1998","unstructured":"Owens, E. B., Shaw, D. S., & Vondra, J. I. (1998). Relations between infant irritability and maternal responsiveness in low-income families. Infant Behavior and Development, 21(4), 761\u2013777. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0163-6383(98)90043-1","journal-title":"Infant Behavior and Development"},{"issue":"2","key":"1491_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.44.2.329","volume":"44","author":"GR Patterson","year":"1989","unstructured":"Patterson, G. R., DeBaryshe, B. D., & Ramsey, E. (1989). A developmental perspective on antisocial behavior. American Psychologist, 44(2), 329\u2013335. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0003-066X.44.2.329","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"issue":"2","key":"1491_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infbeh.2010.11.004","volume":"34","author":"IH Ravn","year":"2011","unstructured":"Ravn, I. H., Smith, L., Lindemann, R., Smeby, N. A., Kyno, N. M., Bunch, E. H., & Sandvik, L. (2011). Effect of early intervention on social interaction between mothers and preterm infants at 12 months of age: A randomized controlled trial. Infant Behavior and Development, 34(2), 215\u2013225. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.infbeh.2010.11.004","journal-title":"Infant Behavior and Development"},{"issue":"6","key":"1491_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jped.2024.02.003","volume":"100","author":"LH Ribas","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ribas, L. H., Montezano, B. B., Nieves, M., Kampmann, L. B., & Jansen, K. (2024). The role of parental stress on emotional and behavioral problems in offspring: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Jornal de Pediatria, 100(6), 565\u2013585. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jped.2024.02.003","journal-title":"Jornal de Pediatria"},{"issue":"2","key":"1491_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1023\/b:ccfp.0000030287.13160.a3","volume":"7","author":"LV Scaramella","year":"2004","unstructured":"Scaramella, L. V., & Leve, L. D. (2004). Clarifying parent-child reciprocities during early childhood: The early childhood coercion model. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 7(2), 89\u2013107. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/b:ccfp.0000030287.13160.a3","journal-title":"Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review"},{"issue":"1","key":"1491_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s10567-025-00550-6","volume":"29","author":"M Sfeir","year":"2026","unstructured":"Sfeir, M., De Leener, M., Rossignol, M., Pulopulos, M. M., De Raedt, R., Cassioli, F., & Galdiolo, S. (2026). A systematic review on parent\u2013child synchrony: The role of stress, resilience and psychopathology. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 29(1), 33\u201372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10567-025-00550-6","journal-title":"Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review"},{"issue":"3","key":"1491_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infbeh.2006.02.004","volume":"29","author":"EM Skuban","year":"2006","unstructured":"Skuban, E. M., Shaw, D. S., Gardner, F., Supplee, L. H., & Nichols, S. R. (2006). The correlates of dyadic synchrony in high-risk, low-income toddler boys. Infant Behavior and Development, 29(3), 423\u2013434. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.infbeh.2006.02.004","journal-title":"Infant Behavior and Development"},{"issue":"1","key":"1491_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1093\/jpepsy\/jsad069","volume":"49","author":"S Tesson","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tesson, S., Swinsburg, D., Nielson-Jones, C., Costa, D. S. J., Winlaw, D. S., Badawi, N., Sholler, G. F., Butow, P. N., & Kasparian, N. A. (2023). Mother\u2013infant dyadic synchrony and interaction patterns after infant cardiac surgery. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 49(1), 13\u201326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/jpepsy\/jsad069","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatric Psychology"},{"issue":"3","key":"1491_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20170352","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2017-0352","volume":"140","author":"R Thomas","year":"2017","unstructured":"Thomas, R., Abell, B., Webb, H. J., Avdagic, E., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2017). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 140(3), e20170352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1542\/peds.2017-0352","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"issue":"4","key":"1491_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.30.4.581","volume":"30","author":"DC van den Boom","year":"1994","unstructured":"van den Boom, D. C., & Hoeksma, J. B. (1994). The effect of infant irritability on mother-infant interaction: A growth-curve analysis. Developmental Psychology, 30(4), 581\u2013590. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0012-1649.30.4.581","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"issue":"12","key":"1491_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2018.07.882","volume":"57","author":"R Waller","year":"2018","unstructured":"Waller, R., Hyde, L. W., Klump, K. L., & Burt, S. A. (2018). Parenting is an environmental predictor of callous-unemotional traits and aggression: A monozygotic twin differences study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 57(12), 955\u2013963. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jaac.2018.07.882","journal-title":"Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry"},{"issue":"4","key":"1491_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1007\/s10862-015-9480-3","volume":"37","author":"S Woltering","year":"2015","unstructured":"Woltering, S., Lishak, V., Elliott, B., Ferraro, L., & Granic, I. (2015). Dyadic attunement and physiological synchrony during mother-child interactions: An exploratory study in children with and without externalizing behavior problems. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 37(4), 624\u2013633. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10862-015-9480-3","journal-title":"Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment"}],"container-title":["Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10802-026-01491-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10802-026-01491-6","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10802-026-01491-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T12:12:53Z","timestamp":1787746373000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10802-026-01491-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]]},"references-count":68,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["1491"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10802-026-01491-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["2730-7166","2730-7174"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2730-7166","type":"print"},{"value":"2730-7174","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]]},"assertion":[{"value":"22 March 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"15 July 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"30 July 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Approval for this study was obtained from the University of New South Wales and relevant Local Health District Human Research Ethics Committees.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethical Approval","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"All procedures performed in this study adhered to the tenets of the 1964 Helsinki Declaration. Written informed consent was obtained from parents to participate in this study, and to have their data published.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Informed Consent","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors have no known financial or non-financial conflicts of interest to disclose.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"96"}}