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We investigated how lexical status and orthographic distance modulate cognitive effort using pupil dilation during silent reading. Pupillary responses from thirty-four adults were analyzed using a combination of Linear Mixed-Effects models and Generalized Additive Mixed Models across real words (RWs), low-distance pseudowords (PWs), and high-distance nonwords (NWs). Results revealed a temporal hierarchy and a double dissociation between lexical and orthographic processing. Specifically, the lexicality effect (RW\u2009&gt;\u2009PW) emerged early (1333\u20132667\u00a0ms), reflecting the sustained cognitive load of semantic integration and global activation once lexical access is achieved. In contrast, the orthographic neighborhood effect (PW\u2009&gt;\u2009NW) appeared at a later stage (2152\u20132727\u00a0ms), manifesting as a delayed peak that reflects the intense lateral inhibition required to suppress competing lexical candidates in PWs. While RWs trigger faster but deeper semantic processing, PWs result in a delayed response reflecting the difficulty of resolving competition among orthographically similar forms. These dynamics refine neighborhood theories by demonstrating that pupillometry can dissociate early-stage semantic activation from late-stage inhibitory control driven by orthographic similarity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10936-026-10267-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,13]],"date-time":"2026-06-13T07:14:35Z","timestamp":1781334875000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Effect of Orthographic Neighbourhood and Semantics on Lexical Processing in a Transparent Orthographic Language: A Pupilometry Study"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"55","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7739-8676","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hazal","family":"Artuvan Korkmaz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2925-4146","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00d6zg\u00fcr","family":"Ayd\u0131n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"10267_CR1","volume-title":"A frequency dictionary of Turkish","author":"Y Aksan","year":"2017","unstructured":"Aksan, Y., Aksan, M., Mersinli, \u00dc., & Demirhan, U. 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