{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,4]],"date-time":"2026-07-04T02:08:48Z","timestamp":1783130928456,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,16]],"date-time":"2024-07-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1721088000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,16]],"date-time":"2024-07-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1721088000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Matern Child Health J"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>To examine the associations among mass incarceration, maternal vulnerability, and disparities in birth outcomes across U.S. counties, utilizing an ecological model and reproductive justice perspective was used. This study tests whether mass incarceration is associated with infant mortality and low birthweight across U.S. counties, and whether maternal vulnerability explains the relationship between mass incarceration and birth disparities.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Data were derived from a variety of public sources and were merged using federal FIPS codes. Outcomes from the CDC Vitality Statistics include percent low birth weight births (births below 2499\u00a0g divided by singleton births to women aged 20 to 39) and infant mortality (infant deaths per 1000 live births). Black\u2013White rate ratios were calculated for the birth outcomes to specifically examine the large Black\u2013White disparity in birth outcomes. The analysis controlled for urbanicity, income inequality, median household income, residential segregation, and southern region, as well as a fixed effect for state level differences.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Findings show that counties with higher rates of incarceration have higher prevalence of infant mortality and low birthweight, as well as greater Black\u2013White disparity in infant mortality. Mass incarceration is associated with increases in adverse birth outcomes and maternal vulnerability partially mediates this relationship.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Findings provide evidence that heightened levels of incarceration affect birth outcomes for all residents at the county-level. It is imperative to address the overuse of mass incarceration in order to support adequate reproductive healthcare of vulnerable populations in the United States.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-024-03960-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,16]],"date-time":"2024-07-16T07:02:04Z","timestamp":1721113324000},"page":"1620-1630","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Mass Incarceration, Maternal Vulnerability, and Birth Outcomes Across U.S. Counties"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-6305-4598","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Melanie","family":"McKenna","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kathryn M.","family":"Nowotny","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,16]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"3960_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1089\/heq.2020.0081","volume":"5","author":"JG Alson","year":"2021","unstructured":"Alson, J. G., Robinson, W. R., Pittman, L., & Doll, K. M. (2021). Incorporating measures of structural racism into population studies of reproductive health in the United States: A narrative review. Health Equity, 5(1), 49\u201358. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/heq.2020.0081","journal-title":"Health Equity"},{"key":"3960_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30569-X","volume":"389","author":"ZD Bailey","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bailey, Z. D., Krieger, N., Ag\u00e9nor, M., Graves, J., Linos, N., & Bassett, M. T. (2017). Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: Evidence and interventions. The Lancet, 389, 1453\u20131463.","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"issue":"8","key":"3960_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMms2025396","volume":"384","author":"ZD Bailey","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bailey, Z. D., Feldman, J. M., & Bassett, M. T. (2021). How structural racism works\u2014racist policies as a root cause of US racial health inequities. New England Journal of Medicine, 384(8), 768\u2013773.","journal-title":"New England Journal of Medicine"},{"key":"3960_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.51.6.1173","volume":"5","author":"RM Baron","year":"1986","unstructured":"Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator\u2013mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 1173\u20131182.","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"3960_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1300\/J377v23n01_03","volume":"23","author":"D Braman","year":"2004","unstructured":"Braman, D. (2004). Families and the moral economy of incarceration. Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought, 23(1\u20132), 27\u201350.","journal-title":"Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought"},{"issue":"S1","key":"3960_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S14","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2019.305486","volume":"110","author":"L Brinkley-Rubinstein","year":"2020","unstructured":"Brinkley-Rubinstein, L., & Cloud, D. H. (2020). Mass incarceration as a social-structural driver of health inequities: A supplement to AJPH. American Journal of Public Health, 110(S1), S14\u2013S15. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/AJPH.2019.305486","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"3960_CR701","unstructured":"Bureau of Justice Statistics, Annual Survey of Jails, 2006\u20132017."},{"key":"3960_CR702","unstructured":"Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Corrections Reporting Program, 2018."},{"key":"3960_CR13","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. (2018). National Vital Statistics System, Linked Birth\/Infant Death Records 1995\u20132020 on CDC WONDER Online Database. Data are from the Linked Birth\/Infant Deaths Records 1995\u20132020, as compiled from data provided by the 57 vital statistics jurisdictions through the Vital Statistics Cooperative Program."},{"issue":"6","key":"3960_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0000000000000268","volume":"42","author":"EF Dauria","year":"2015","unstructured":"Dauria, E. F., Elifson, K., Arriola, K. J., Wingood, G., & Cooper, H. L. (2015). Male incarceration rates and rates of sexually transmitted infections: Results from a longitudinal analysis in a southeastern US city. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 42(6), 324\u2013328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/OLQ.0000000000000268","journal-title":"Sexually Transmitted Diseases"},{"key":"3960_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-publhealth-031811-124614","volume":"33","author":"DM Dumont","year":"2012","unstructured":"Dumont, D. M., Brockmann, B., Dickman, S., Alexander, N., & Rich, J. D. (2012). Public health and the epidemic of incarceration. Annual Review of Public Health, 33, 325\u2013339.","journal-title":"Annual Review of Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"3960_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1017\/S1742058X11000130","volume":"8","author":"GC Gee","year":"2011","unstructured":"Gee, G. C., & Ford, C. L. (2011). Structural racism and health inequities: Old issues, New Directions1. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 8(1), 115\u2013132.","journal-title":"Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race"},{"issue":"5","key":"3960_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2004.060749","volume":"96","author":"AT Geronimus","year":"2006","unstructured":"Geronimus, A. T., Hicken, M., Keene, D., & Bound, J. (2006). \u201cWeathering\u201d and age patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 96(5), 826\u2013833.","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"3960_CR27","volume-title":"Data on maternal health and pregnancy outcomes from prisons and jails: Results from a feasibility study","author":"S Irazola","year":"2024","unstructured":"Irazola, S., Maruschack, L., & Bronson, J. (2024). Data on maternal health and pregnancy outcomes from prisons and jails: Results from a feasibility study. Bureau of Justice Statistics."},{"key":"3960_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2020.112856","volume":"250","author":"JL Jahn","year":"2020","unstructured":"Jahn, J. L., Chen, J. T., Ag\u00e9nor, M., & Krieger, N. (2020). County-level jail incarceration and preterm birth among non-Hispanic Black and white US women, 1999\u20132015. Social Science & Medicine, 250, 112856.","journal-title":"Social Science & Medicine"},{"key":"3960_CR30","volume-title":"People in jail and prison in spring 2021","author":"J Kang-Brown","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kang-Brown, J., Montagnet, C., & Heiss, J. (2021). People in jail and prison in spring 2021. Vera Institute of Justice."},{"key":"3960_CR31","unstructured":"Lead, A. (2020). Advancing public health interventions to address the harms of the Carceral System. American Public Health Association."},{"issue":"3","key":"3960_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e287","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(22)00005-6","volume":"7","author":"K LeMasters","year":"2022","unstructured":"LeMasters, K., Brinkley-Rubinstein, L., Maner, M., Peterson, M., Nowotny, K., & Bailey, Z. (2022). Carceral epidemiology: Mass incarceration and structural racism during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Lancet Public Health, 7(3), e287\u2013e290.","journal-title":"The Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"3960_CR37","unstructured":"National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2020). The effects of incarceration and reentry on community health and well-being: Proceedings of a workshop."},{"issue":"S1","key":"3960_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S130","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2019.305425","volume":"110","author":"KM Nowotny","year":"2020","unstructured":"Nowotny, K. M., Omori, M., McKenna, M., & Kleinman, J. (2020). Incarceration rates and incidence of sexually transmitted infections in US counties, 2011\u20132016. American Journal of Public Health, 110(S1), S130\u2013S136.","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"3960_CR44","unstructured":"Ratcliffe M., Burd C., Holder K., & Fields A. (2016). Defining rural at the U.S. Census Bureau. ACSGEO-1. U.S. Census Bureau."},{"issue":"5","key":"3960_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2315306","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.15306","volume":"6","author":"EG Salazar","year":"2023","unstructured":"Salazar, E. G., Montoya-Williams, D., Passarella, M., McGann, C., Paul, K., Murosko, D., Pe\u00f1a, M.-M., Ortiz, R., Burris, H. H., Lorch, S. A., & Handley, S. C. (2023). County-level maternal vulnerability and preterm birth in the US. JAMA Network Open, 6(5), e2315306\u2013e2315306.","journal-title":"JAMA Network Open"},{"issue":"3","key":"3960_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0009.12136","volume":"93","author":"J Schnittker","year":"2015","unstructured":"Schnittker, J., Uggen, C., Shannon, S. K., & McElrath, S. M. (2015). The institutional effects of incarceration: Spillovers from criminal justice to health care. Milbank Quarterly., 93(3), 516\u2013560. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1468-0009.12136","journal-title":"Milbank Quarterly."},{"key":"3960_CR52","volume-title":"Getting hyperlocal to improve outcomes and achieve racial equity in maternal health: The US Maternal Vulnerability Index","author":"Surgo Ventures","year":"2021","unstructured":"Surgo Ventures. (2021). Getting hyperlocal to improve outcomes and achieve racial equity in maternal health: The US Maternal Vulnerability Index. Surgo Ventures."},{"issue":"3","key":"3960_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1177\/1073110520958875","volume":"48","author":"JK Taylor","year":"2020","unstructured":"Taylor, J. K. (2020). Structural racism and maternal health among Black women. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 48(3), 506\u2013517.","journal-title":"Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"3960_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S55","DOI":"10.1086\/425278","volume":"191","author":"JC Thomas","year":"2005","unstructured":"Thomas, J. C., & Sampson, L. A. (2005). High rates of incarceration as a social force associated with community rates of sexually transmitted infection. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 191(Suppl 1), S55\u2013S60. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1086\/425278","journal-title":"Journal of Infectious Diseases"},{"issue":"Supplement_1","key":"3960_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S181","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.98.Supplement_1.S181","volume":"98","author":"JC Thomas","year":"2008","unstructured":"Thomas, J. C., & Torrone, E. (2008). Incarceration as forced migration: Effects on selected community health outcomes. American Journal of Public Health, 98(Supplement_1), S181\u2013S184.","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"3960_CR56","unstructured":"United States Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, Division of Vital Statistics. (2020). Natality public-use data 2007\u20132019. Retrieved October 30, 2021, from CDC WONDER Online Database"},{"key":"3960_CR70","unstructured":"U.S. Census Bureau. (2020). 2014\u20132019 U.S. Census American Community Survey 5-year estimates. U.S. Census Bureau."},{"key":"3960_CR59","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Health and Human Services\u2014Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Incarceration\u2014Healthy People 2030. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.health.gov\/healthypeople\/priorityareas\/social-determinants-health\/literature-summaries\/incarceration"},{"key":"3960_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthplace.2017.03.012","volume":"45","author":"M Wallace","year":"2017","unstructured":"Wallace, M., Crear-Perry, J., Richardson, L., Tarver, M., & Theall, K. (2017). Separate and unequal: Structural racism and infant mortality in the US. Health & Place, 45, 140\u2013144.","journal-title":"Health & Place"},{"key":"3960_CR62","volume-title":"Medical apartheid: The dark history of medical experimentation on Black Americans from colonial times to the present","author":"HA Washington","year":"2006","unstructured":"Washington, H. A. (2006). Medical apartheid: The dark history of medical experimentation on Black Americans from colonial times to the present. Doubleday Books."},{"issue":"3","key":"3960_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1177\/0887403403253724","volume":"14","author":"RR Weidner","year":"2003","unstructured":"Weidner, R. R., & Frase, R. S. (2003). Legal and extralegal determinants of intercounty differences in prison use. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 14(3), 377\u2013400.","journal-title":"Criminal Justice Policy Review"},{"issue":"2","key":"3960_CR700","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1353\/dem.0.0052","volume":"46","author":"C Wildeman","year":"2009","unstructured":"Wildeman, C. (2009). Parental imprisonment, the prison boom, and the concentration of childhood disadvantage. Demography,\n46(2), 265\u2013280.","journal-title":"Demography"},{"key":"3960_CR67","unstructured":"Womack, L. S., Rossen, L. M., & Martin, J. A. (2018). Singleton low birthweight rates, by race and Hispanic origin: United States, 2006\u20132016. NCHS Data Brief (306), 1\u20138."},{"issue":"2","key":"3960_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2021.01466","volume":"41","author":"R Yearby","year":"2022","unstructured":"Yearby, R., Clark, B., & Figueroa, J. F. (2022). Structural racism in historical and modern US health care policy: Study examines structural racism in historical and modern US health care policy. Health Affairs, 41(2), 187\u2013194.","journal-title":"Health Affairs"},{"issue":"2","key":"3960_CR69","first-page":"1","volume":"5","author":"ND Zaller","year":"2017","unstructured":"Zaller, N. D., Cloud, D. H., Brinkley-Rubinstein, L., Martino, S., Bouvier, B., & Brockmann, B. (2017). Commentary: The importance of Medicaid expansion for criminal justice populations in the south. Health and Justice, 5(2), 1\u20135.","journal-title":"Health and Justice"}],"container-title":["Maternal and Child Health Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10995-024-03960-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10995-024-03960-0\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s10995-024-03960-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,28]],"date-time":"2024-08-28T11:13:26Z","timestamp":1724843606000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s10995-024-03960-0"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,16]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["3960"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10995-024-03960-0","relation":{},"ISSN":["1092-7875","1573-6628"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1092-7875","type":"print"},{"value":"1573-6628","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,16]]},"assertion":[{"value":"31 May 2024","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 July 2024","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"There are no conflict of interest\/competing interests to disclose.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}},{"value":"No ethical approval was necessary as all data used was existing data.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical Approval"}},{"value":"N\/A. No human subjects research.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to Participate"}},{"value":"All authors consent to publication.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to Publication"}}]}}