{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T03:26:30Z","timestamp":1790825190757,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]],"date-time":"2023-05-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685059200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]],"date-time":"2023-05-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685059200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002974","name":"Daimler und Benz Stiftung","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32-03\/18"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32-03\/18"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002974","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005721","name":"Universit\u00e4t Bielefeld","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005721","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Prev Sci"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Violent discipline in schools infringes on children\u2019s rights and is associated with harmful developmental consequences for students. This calls for effective intervention programs, particularly in countries with high prevalence of violent discipline in schools. This study tested the effectiveness of the preventative intervention <jats:italic>Interaction Competencies with Children\u2014for Teachers (ICC-T)<\/jats:italic> in reducing violent discipline by teachers in a\u00a0two-arm matched cluster-randomized controlled trial. The sample comprised teachers (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u2009173, 53.7% female) and students (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u2009914, 50.5% girls) from 12 public primary schools from six regions in Tanzania. Teacher physical and emotional violent discipline reported by teachers and students was assessed before and six to eight and a half months after the intervention. The schools were randomly allocated to either intervention (6; <jats:italic>ICC-T<\/jats:italic>) or control condition (6; no intervention). Teachers were not blinded. Students and research assistants conducting the follow-up assessment were blinded. A series of multivariate multilevel models revealed significant <jats:italic>time*intervention<\/jats:italic> effects on physical violent discipline reported by teachers and students and teachers\u2019 favorable attitudes towards physical violent discipline, <jats:italic>FDR<\/jats:italic>s\u2009&lt;\u2009.05. In addition, we found a spill-over effect on peer-to-peer violence and students\u2019 externalizing, <jats:italic>ps<\/jats:italic>\u2009&lt;\u2009.05. There were no significant <jats:italic>time*intervention<\/jats:italic> effects either on emotional violent discipline, <jats:italic>FDRs<\/jats:italic>\u2009&gt;\u2009.05, teachers\u2019 favorable attitudes towards emotional violent discipline or on student\u2019s internalizing problems and academic performance, <jats:italic>ps<\/jats:italic>\u2009&gt;\u2009.05. Our results provide further evidence that <jats:italic>ICC-T<\/jats:italic> may positively change teachers\u2019 violent disciplining behavior and their attitudes towards violent discipline. ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03893851.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11121-023-01550-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]],"date-time":"2023-05-26T10:02:27Z","timestamp":1685095347000},"page":"999-1010","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Reducing Violent Discipline by Teachers: a Matched Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial in Tanzanian Public Primary Schools"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Faustine Bwire","family":"Masath","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katharina","family":"Mattonet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katharin","family":"Hermenau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mabula","family":"Nkuba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9272-0512","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tobias","family":"Hecker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"1550_CR1","unstructured":"ActionAid. (2013). Stop violence against girls in school: A cross-country analysis of change in Ghana, Kenya and Mozambique Exectuve Summary. ActionAid. http:\/\/www.actionaid.org\/sites\/files\/actionaid\/svags_endline_study_report-executive_summary_english_october_2013.pdf"},{"issue":"16","key":"1550_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3151","DOI":"10.1080\/00949655.2018.1504945","volume":"88","author":"PC Austin","year":"2018","unstructured":"Austin, P. C., & Leckie, G. (2018). The effect of number of clusters and cluster size on statistical power and Type I error rates when testing random effects variance components in multilevel linear and logistic regression models. Journal of Statistical Computation and Simulation, 88(16), 3151\u20133163. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/00949655.2018.1504945","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Computation and Simulation"},{"issue":"7","key":"1550_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1016\/j.childyouth.2009.03.001","volume":"31","author":"AJL Baker","year":"2009","unstructured":"Baker, A. J. L. (2009). Adult recall of childhood psychological maltreatment: Definitional strategies and challenges. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(7), 703\u2013714. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.childyouth.2009.03.001","journal-title":"Children and Youth Services Review"},{"issue":"4","key":"1550_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e456","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(21)00002-4","volume":"9","author":"H Baker-Henningham","year":"2021","unstructured":"Baker-Henningham, H., Bowers, M., Francis, T., Vera-Hern\u00e1ndez, M., & Walker, S. P. (2021). The Irie Classroom Toolbox, a universalviolence-prevention teacher-training programme, in Jamaican preschools: A single-blind, cluster-randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Global Health, 9(4), e456\u2013e468. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2214-109X(21)00002-4","journal-title":"The Lancet Global Health"},{"key":"1550_CR5","volume-title":"Cross-cultural research methods","author":"RW Brislin","year":"1973","unstructured":"Brislin, R. W., Lonner, W. J., & Thorndike, R. M. (1973). Cross-cultural research methods. Wiley."},{"issue":"2","key":"1550_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.32614\/RJ-2017-066","volume":"9","author":"M Brooks","year":"2017","unstructured":"Brooks, M., Kristensen, K., van Benthem, K., Magnusson, A., Berg, C., Nielsen, A., Skaug, H., Maechler, M., & Bolker, B. (2017). glmmTMB balances speed and flexibility among packages for zero-inflated generalized linear mixed modeling. The R Journal, 9(2), 378\u2013400. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.32614\/RJ-2017-066","journal-title":"The R Journal"},{"issue":"1","key":"1550_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.112.1.155","volume":"112","author":"J Cohen","year":"1992","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155\u2013159. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-2909.112.1.155","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"issue":"1","key":"1550_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1177\/0143034316681378","volume":"38","author":"S Deb","year":"2017","unstructured":"Deb, S., Kumar, A., Holden, G. W., & Simpson Rowe, L. (2017). School corporal punishment, family tension, and students\u2019 internalizing problems: Evidence from India. School Psychology International, 38(1), 60\u201377. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0143034316681378","journal-title":"School Psychology International"},{"issue":"7","key":"1550_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e378","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(15)00060-1","volume":"3","author":"K Devries","year":"2015","unstructured":"Devries, K., Knight, L., Child, J. C., Mirembe, A., Nakuti, J., Jones, R., Sturgess, J., Allen, E., Kyegombe, N., Parkes, J., Walakira, E., Elbourne, D., Watts, C., & Naker, D. (2015). The good school toolkit for reducing physical violence from school staff to primary school students: A cluster-randomised controlled trial in Uganda. The Lancet Global Health, 3(7), e378\u2013e386. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2214-109X(15)00060-1","journal-title":"The Lancet Global Health"},{"key":"1550_CR10","unstructured":"Dreikurs, R., Cassel, P., & Dreikurs Ferguson, E. (2004). Discipline without tears: How to reduce conflict and establish cooperation in the classroom (revised). Wiley"},{"key":"1550_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Fabbri, C., Rodrigues, K., Leurent, B., Allen, E., Qiu, M., Zuakulu, M., Nombo, D., Kaemingk, M., De Filippo, A., Torrats-Espinosa, G., Shayo, E., Barongo, V., Greco, G., Tol, W., & Devries, K. M. (2021). The EmpaTeach intervention for reducing physical violence from teachers to students in Nyarugusu Refugee Camp: A clusterrandomised controlled trial. PLoS Medicine, 18(10). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pmed.1003808","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1003808"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"1550_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1080\/0954026021000046137","volume":"15","author":"R Goodman","year":"2003","unstructured":"Goodman, R., Meltzer, H., & Bailey, V. (2003). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A pilot study on the validity of the self-report version. In International Review of Psychiatry, 15(1\u20132), 173\u2013177. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/0954026021000046137","journal-title":"In International Review of Psychiatry"},{"key":"1550_CR13","unstructured":"Elimu. H. (2020). The state of violence against school children in Tanzania Mainland: An exploratory study. 1\u2013128"},{"key":"1550_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1017\/S095457942000228X","volume":"34","author":"T Hecker","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hecker, T., Dumke, L., Neuner, F., & Masath, F. B. (2022). Mental health problems moderate the association between teacher violence and children\u2019s social status in East Africa: A multi-informant study combining self- and peer-reports. Development and Psychopathology, 34, 1329\u20131338. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S095457942000228X","journal-title":"Development and Psychopathology"},{"key":"1550_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2017.10.019","volume":"76","author":"T Hecker","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hecker, T., Goessmann, K., Nkuba, M., & Hermenau, K. (2018). Teachers\u2019 stress intensifies violent disciplining in Tanzanian secondary schools. Child Abuse & Neglect, 76, 173\u2013183. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2017.10.019","journal-title":"Child Abuse & Neglect"},{"key":"1550_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838020925787","author":"SL Heekes","year":"2020","unstructured":"Heekes, S. L., Kruger, C. B., Lester, S. N., & Ward, C. L. (2020). A systematic review of corporal punishment in schools: Global prevalence and correlates. In Trauma, Violence, and Abuse. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1524838020925787","journal-title":"In Trauma, Violence, and Abuse."},{"key":"1550_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00937","volume":"6","author":"K Hermenau","year":"2015","unstructured":"Hermenau, K., Kaltenbach, E., Mkinga, G., & Hecker, T. (2015). Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 937. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00937","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"issue":"May 2020","key":"1550_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.09.001","volume":"278","author":"N Husain","year":"2021","unstructured":"Husain, N., Kiran, T., Shah, S., Rahman, A., Saeed, Q., Naeem, S., Bassett, P., Husain, M., Haq, S. U., Jaffery, F., Cohen, N., Naeem, F., & Chaudhry, N. (2021). Efficacy of learning through play plus intervention to reduce maternal depression in women with malnourished children: A randomized controlled trial from Pakistan\u2730. Journal of Affective Disorders, 278(May 2020), 78\u201384. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jad.2020.09.001","journal-title":"Journal of Affective Disorders"},{"key":"1550_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kirika, A., & Hecker, T. (2022). Interaction competencies with children - Entwicklung und Wirkmechanismen einer pr\u00e4ventiven Intervention f\u00fcr Lehrkr\u00e4fte im Kontext gesellschaftlich akzeptierter Gewalt. Verhaltenstherapie, 1\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1159\/000525237","DOI":"10.1159\/000525237"},{"key":"1550_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"K\u0131z\u0131ltepe, R., Irmak, T. Y., Eslek, D., & Hecker, T. (2020). Prevalence of violence by teachers and its association to students\u2019 emotional and behavioral problems and school performance: Findings from secondary school students and teachers in Turkey. Child Abuse and Neglect, 107. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2020.104559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2020.104559"},{"key":"1550_CR21","unstructured":"Klinke, K. (2023). _countimp: Multiple imputation of incomplete count data_. R package version 2.0.7. Retrieved January 18, 2023, from\u00a0https:\/\/www.klinke.com\/#software"},{"key":"1550_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lakens, D. (2022). Sample size justification. Psychology. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.31234\/osf.io\/9d3yf","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/9d3yf"},{"issue":"November 2022","key":"1550_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105982","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2022.105982","volume":"135","author":"FB Masath","year":"2023","unstructured":"Masath, F. B., Scharpf, F., Dumke, L., & Hecker, T. (2023). Externalizing problems mediate the relation between teacher and peer violence and lower school performance. Child Abuse & Neglect, 135(November 2022), 105982. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2022.105982","journal-title":"Child Abuse & Neglect"},{"key":"1550_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s13063-019-3828-z","volume":"21","author":"FB Masath","year":"2020","unstructured":"Masath, F. B., Hermenau, K., Nkuba, M., & Hecker, T. (2020). Reducing violent discipline by teachers using Interaction Competencies with Children for Teachers (ICC-T): Study protocol for a matched cluster randomized controlled trial in Tanzanian public primary schools. Trials, 21, 4. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13063-019-3828-z","journal-title":"Trials"},{"issue":"1","key":"1550_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00619.x","volume":"86","author":"AG McEachern","year":"2008","unstructured":"McEachern, A. G., Aluede, O., & Kenny, M. C. (2008). Emotional abuse in the classroom: Implications and interventions for counselors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 86(1), 3\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00619.x","journal-title":"Journal of Counseling & Development"},{"issue":"4","key":"1550_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1080\/00273171.2016.1167008","volume":"51","author":"D McNeish","year":"2016","unstructured":"McNeish, D., & Stapleton, L. M. (2016). Modeling clustered data with very few clusters. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 51(4), 495\u2013518. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/00273171.2016.1167008","journal-title":"Multivariate Behavioral Research"},{"issue":"2","key":"1550_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-2337(2000)26:2<169::AID-AB3>3.0.CO;2-A","volume":"26","author":"H Mynard","year":"2000","unstructured":"Mynard, H., & Joseph, S. (2000). Development of the multidimensional peer-victimization scale. Aggressive Behavior, 26(2), 169\u2013178. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/(SICI)1098-2337(2000)26:2%3C169::AID-AB3%3E3.0.CO;2-A","journal-title":"Aggressive Behavior"},{"issue":"8","key":"1550_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"ee0201362","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0201362","volume":"13","author":"M Nkuba","year":"2018","unstructured":"Nkuba, M., Hermenau, K., Goessmann, K., & Hecker, T. (2018). Reducing violence by teachers using the preventative intervention InteractionCompetencies with Children for Teachers (ICC-T): A cluster randomized controlled trial at public secondary schools in Tanzania. PLoS ONE, 13(8), ee0201362\u2013ee0201362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0201362","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"1550_CR29","unstructured":"Ogando Portela, M. J., & Pells, K. (2015). Corporal punishment in schools: longitudinal evidence from Ethiopia, India, Peru and Viet Nam. Innocenti Discussion Paper No. 2015-02, UNICEF Office of Research, Florence. Retrieved May 23, 2023, from\u00a0https:\/\/repositorio.minedu.gob.pe\/bitstream\/handle\/20.500.12799\/4414\/Corporal%20Punishment%20in%20Schools%20Longitudinal%20Evidence%20from%20Ethiopia%2C%20India%20Peru%20and%20Viet%20Nam.pdf?sequence=1"},{"key":"1550_CR30","unstructured":"RStudio Team. (2020). RStudio: Integrated development for R. RStudio. PBC.\u00a0Retrieved January 18, 2023, from\u00a0https:\/\/www.rstudio.com"},{"issue":"19","key":"1550_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3424","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.6947","volume":"35","author":"A Salazar","year":"2016","unstructured":"Salazar, A., Ojeda, B., Due\u00f1as, M., Fern\u00e1ndez, F., & Failde, I. (2016). Simple Generalized Estimating Equations (GEEs) and Weighted Generalized Estimating Equations (WGEEs) in longitudinal studies with dropouts: Guidelines and implementation in R. Statistics in Medicine, 35(19), 3424\u20133448. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/sim.6947","journal-title":"Statistics in Medicine"},{"key":"1550_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e14","DOI":"10.1017\/gmh.2021.14","volume":"8","author":"M Santamar\u00eda","year":"2021","unstructured":"Santamar\u00eda, M., Mondragon, N., Santxo, N., & Ozamiz-Etxebarria, N. (2021). Teacher stress, anxiety and depression at the beginning of the academic year during the COVID-19 pandemic. Global Mental Health, 8, e14. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/gmh.2021.14","journal-title":"Global Mental Health"},{"key":"1550_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380221102559","author":"F Scharpf","year":"2022","unstructured":"Scharpf, F., K\u0131z\u0131ltepe, R., Kirika, A., & Hecker, T. (2022). A systematic review of the prevalence and correlates of emotional violence by teachers. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15248380221102559","journal-title":"Trauma, Violence, & Abuse"},{"issue":"4","key":"1550_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1080\/00031305.1980.10483031","volume":"34","author":"SR Searle","year":"1980","unstructured":"Searle, S. R., Speed, F. M., & Milliken, G. A. (1980). Population marginal means in the linear model: An alternative to least squares means. The American Statistician, 34(4), 216\u2013221. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/00031305.1980.10483031","journal-title":"The American Statistician"},{"key":"1550_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.childyouth.2022.106521","volume":"138","author":"J Ssenyonga","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ssenyonga, J., Hermenau, K., Mattonet, K., Nkuba, M., & Hecker, T. (2022). Reducing teachers \u2019 use of violence toward students\u202f: A cluster-randomized controlled trial in secondary schools in Southwestern Uganda. Children and Youth Services Review, 138, 106521. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.childyouth.2022.106521","journal-title":"Children and Youth Services Review"},{"key":"1550_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2019.04.012","volume":"93","author":"J Ssenyonga","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ssenyonga, J., Hermenau, K., Nkuba, M., & Hecker, T. (2019). Stress and positive attitudes towards violent discipline are associated with teachers use of violence in Uganda. Child Abuse and Neglect, 93, 15\u201326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2019.04.012","journal-title":"Child Abuse and Neglect"},{"issue":"4","key":"1550_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/S0145-2134(97)00174-9","volume":"22","author":"MA Straus","year":"1998","unstructured":"Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Finkelhor, D., Moore, D. W., & Runyan, D. (1998). Identification of child maltreatment with the parent-child Conflict Tactics Scales: Development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents. Child Abuse and Neglect, 22(4), 249\u2013270. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0145-2134(97)00174-9","journal-title":"Child Abuse and Neglect"},{"key":"1550_CR38","unstructured":"The American Academy of Pediatrics. (1999). Caring for your school-age child: Ages 5 to 12 (E. L. Schoor (ed.). Bantam Books"},{"key":"1550_CR39","unstructured":"United Nations Children\u2019s Fund (UNICEF). (2016). The state of the world\u2019s children: A fair chance for every child. UNICEF"},{"key":"1550_CR40","volume-title":"Basic Education Statistics (BEST)-National Data","author":"United Republic of Tanzania","year":"2019","unstructured":"United Republic of Tanzania. (2019). Basic Education Statistics (BEST)-National Data. Not yet published."},{"issue":"3","key":"1550_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v045.i03","volume":"45","author":"S van Buuren","year":"2011","unstructured":"van Buuren, S., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011). mice: Multivariate imputation by chained equations in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 45(3), 1\u201367. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18637\/jss.v045.i03","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"1550_CR42","unstructured":"Wickham, H. (2016). ggplot2: Elegant graphics for data analysis. Springer.\u00a0Retrieved January 18, 2023, from\u00a0https:\/\/ggplot2.tidyverse.org"}],"container-title":["Prevention Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11121-023-01550-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11121-023-01550-0\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11121-023-01550-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,8]],"date-time":"2023-08-08T11:22:59Z","timestamp":1691493779000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11121-023-01550-0"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]}},"alternative-id":["1550"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11121-023-01550-0","relation":{},"ISSN":["1389-4986","1573-6695"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1389-4986","type":"print"},{"value":"1573-6695","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]},"assertion":[{"value":"12 May 2023","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"26 May 2023","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The study was performed in accordance with the ethical standards as laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. We obtained ethical approval and research permits from the ethics committee of Bielefeld University in Germany and from the University of Dar es Salaam and all relevant authorities in Tanzania. Research assistants were trained and instructed to refer participating students who exhibited marked psychological distress during the interview or who reported serious ongoing emotional or physical abuse that exceeded culturally acceptable levels to the study psychologist. The study psychologist conducted a follow-up interview and determined whether to involve guidance counsellors, parents, school administrators, or authorities on a case-by-case basis. There was a small number of severe cases of persistent abuse by teachers.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics Approval"}},{"value":"All individual participants assented by signing informed consent forms to participate in the study and publishing its findings for academic use.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Informed Consent"}},{"value":"Tobias Hecker, Katharin Hermenau, and Mabula Nkuba were involved in the development of the <i>ICC-T<\/i> program described in this article. However, none of the researchers derive any financial benefit from the dissemination of the program. Neither the funders nor the authors have conflicting interest in relation to the article\u2019s publication.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of Interest"}}]}}