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Both studies were of a cluster-randomised controlled design in which birds were randomly assigned to one of five treatment groups: (i) administration with FP vaccine alone (feather follicle), (ii) administration with ND vaccine alone (eye-drop), (iii) concurrent administration of FP (feather follicle) and ND (eye-drop) vaccines, (iv) concurrent administration of FP (wing-web) and ND (eye-drop) vaccines, and (v) unvaccinated, acting as environmental sentinels. Data from a total of 1167 birds from seven villages in Hanang District of Tanzania together with 1037 birds from eleven villages in Dhading District of Nepal were collected over a period of 21 and 28\u00a0days, respectively. Immune responses to FP vaccination were evaluated by local take reactions, while those to ND vaccination were evaluated serologically by haemagglutination inhibition test. The two studies demonstrated that the concurrent vaccination of free-range, indigenous breeds of chicken with live FP and ND vaccines, both administered by non-invasive routes, was safe and induced immunity against FP and ND that were non-inferior to the administration of FP and ND vaccines alone. These findings are important to appropriately trained small-scale backyard poultry farmers as well as to paraprofessionals and community health workers helping to increase vaccine uptake and the control of both FP and ND in low- to middle-income countries.\n<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-022-03250-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,23]],"date-time":"2022-09-23T10:03:55Z","timestamp":1663927435000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["The co-administration of live fowlpox and Newcastle disease vaccines by non-invasive routes to chickens reared by smallholders in Tanzania and Nepal"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"54","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8550-4464","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stuart J.","family":"Andrews","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Asanteli","family":"Makundi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julius","family":"Mwanadota","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sakar","family":"Shivakoti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bikas Raj","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"E. Jane","family":"Poole","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeremy","family":"Salt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kristin","family":"Stuke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"3250_CR1","unstructured":"Abdu, P.A. and Musa, U. 2014. Textbook of Avian Medicine, First edition, pp. 94\u201396, Sabon Gari, Zaria, Nigeria."},{"key":"3250_CR2","unstructured":"Abera, B., Lynch, S., Duguma, R., Dessie, T., Bettridge, J., Wigley, P. and Christley, R. 2017. Immunogenicity of the Newcastle disease virus vaccine La Sota, in introduced birds under intensive and extensive management conditions. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 29: (6), Article #110."},{"key":"3250_CR3","unstructured":"Alders, R. and Spradbrow, P. 2001. Controlling Newcastle disease in village chickens. A Field Manual. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research Monograph No.82, 1\u2013112."},{"key":"3250_CR4","first-page":"78","volume":"3","author":"E Alehegn","year":"2014","unstructured":"Alehegn, E., Chanie, M. and Mengesha, D. 2014. A systematic review of serological and clinicopathological features and associated risk factors of avian pox. British Journal of Poultry Sciences, 3: 78\u201387.","journal-title":"British Journal of Poultry Sciences"},{"key":"3250_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1080\/713655022","volume":"42","author":"DJ Alexander","year":"2001","unstructured":"Alexander, D.J. 2001. Newcastle disease. British Poultry Science, 42: 5\u201322.","journal-title":"British Poultry Science"},{"key":"3250_CR6","unstructured":"Broerman, A. and Edgington, B.H. 1932. Fowlpox. Special circular No. 37, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station."},{"key":"3250_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2021.105279","volume":"189","author":"Z Campbell","year":"2021","unstructured":"Campbell, Z., Coleman, P., Guest, A., Kushwaha, P., Ramuthivheli, T., Osebe, T., Perry, B. and Salt J. 2021. Prioritizing smallholder animal health needs in East Africa, West Africa and South Asia using three approaches: literature review, expert workshops, and practitioner surveys. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 189: 1\u201321.","journal-title":"Preventive Veterinary Medicine"},{"key":"3250_CR8","unstructured":"Dickinson, E.M. 1942. Fowlpox in domestic poultry. Station Bulletin 411, Oregan State System of Higher Education, Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State College, Corvallis, 1\u201330."},{"key":"3250_CR9","unstructured":"Ferguson, C.M. 1946. Fowlpox vaccination, Bulletin No. 241 of the Agricultural Extension Service, The Ohio State University, 1\u20134."},{"key":"3250_CR10","unstructured":"Gerlach, H. 1994. Viruses. In: B.W. Ritchie, G.J. Harrison and L.R. Harrison (Eds), Avian Medicine: Principles and Application, (Chapter 32, pp.862\u2013948), Wingers Publishing, Florida."},{"key":"3250_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1080\/03079457.2018.1554893","volume":"48","author":"ES Giotis","year":"2019","unstructured":"Giotis, E.S and Skinner, M.A. 2019. Spotlight on avian pathology: fowlpox virus. Avian Pathology, 48: 87\u201390.","journal-title":"Avian Pathology"},{"key":"3250_CR12","unstructured":"Graham, R. and Barger, E.H. 1935. Fowlpox. 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Poultry Science, 52: 1463\u20131468.","journal-title":"Poultry Science"}],"container-title":["Tropical Animal Health and Production"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11250-022-03250-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11250-022-03250-3\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11250-022-03250-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,17]],"date-time":"2022-10-17T15:34:07Z","timestamp":1666020847000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11250-022-03250-3"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,23]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["3250"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11250-022-03250-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["0049-4747","1573-7438"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0049-4747","type":"print"},{"value":"1573-7438","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,23]]},"assertion":[{"value":"3 March 2022","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"29 July 2022","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"23 September 2022","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The findings and conclusions contained within are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect positions or policies of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation or the UK Government.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Disclaimer"}},{"value":"The studies were authorised by the appropriate National or Regional Regulatory Authorities or the Directorate of Veterinary Services and conducted by The Open University of Tanzania and Heifer International Nepal. Serology was carried out by Aspirata (Pty) Ltd., NOSA Testing Laboratory (formerly Deltamune), South Africa (Tanzanian study), and Hester Biosciences Nepal Private Limited (Nepalese study).","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and compliance"}},{"value":"All the authors consent to publish the manuscript.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}],"article-number":"315"}}