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This study evaluated the effects of early exposure to target odours on four core detection variables: sensitivity under tight-containment conditions, reaction distance, work endurance, and detection reliability. Twenty operational adult dogs served as controls, and four dogs underwent an early-learning protocol beginning during sensitive stages of neurosensory development. All dogs completed parallel test batteries under equivalent conditions, and data were analysed using Welch\u2019s t-tests with effect size estimation. Dogs exposed to early imprinting showed higher detection sensitivity in tight-containment conditions and reacted to the target odour at substantially greater distances than control dogs. Work endurance was also higher in early-learning dogs, which maintained effective performance for extended periods compared to conventionally trained dogs. In contrast, false-positive behaviour did not differ between groups, indicating that response inhibition and decision control were not modified by early imprinting alone. Taken together, the findings indicate that early olfactory imprinting is associated with improvements in detection sensitivity, reaction distance, and work endurance, while detection reliability remains unchanged. These results suggest potential benefits of integrating early imprinting protocols into breeding and training programmes for detection dogs and highlight the need for larger, controlled studies to further characterise their developmental and practical implications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11259-026-11237-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T09:05:40Z","timestamp":1778749540000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Early olfactory pre-conditioning during sensitive developmental periods is associated with enhanced detection performance in working dogs"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"50","author":[{"given":"Gloria","family":"Dur\u00e1n-Arroyo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isabel","family":"Cuadrado-Gordillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David Alhadeff-Von","family":"Bormann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M. 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It relied exclusively on historical training documentation and observational information obtained from operational detection dogs belonging to Spanish State Security Forces. According to the applicable national regulations and institutional policies, these activities do not require approval from an animal research ethics committee. All procedures complied with the welfare standards and operational protocols of the governmental institutions responsible for the dogs.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval"}},{"value":"Not applicable. The manuscript contains no identifiable human data, images, or personal information requiring publication consent.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"Authorization for the use of operational and training data was granted by the corresponding canine units. Participation of handlers and instructors was conducted under institutional approval from their superior command.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to participate"}},{"value":"This study strictly complies with ethical and legal principles regarding animal welfare. No invasive interventions, experimentation, physical manipulation, or procedures causing harm, stress, or suffering to the participating animals have been conducted. All activities were carried out in natural environments, respecting the developmental rhythms of the puppies and the usual training conditions in operational contexts. The Von Bormann protocol was designed as an early sensory stimulation methodology based on positive reinforcement, compatible with international recommendations on animal welfare in working animals. Consequently, evaluation by an animal ethics committee was not necessary, as it is not an experimental or clinical procedure, but an applied practice respectful of the animal\u2019s nature and environment.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Statement on bioethics and animal welfare"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":6,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"324"}}