{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T15:49:05Z","timestamp":1786981745691,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,1]],"date-time":"2025-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1735689600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":306,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,1]],"date-time":"2024-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1709251200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,1]],"date-time":"2024-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1709251200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Psychometrika"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Differential item functioning (DIF) is a standard analysis for every testing company. Research has demonstrated that DIF can result when test items measure different ability composites, and the groups being examined for DIF exhibit distinct underlying ability distributions on those composite abilities. In this article, we examine DIF from a two-dimensional multidimensional item response theory (MIRT) perspective. We begin by delving into the compensatory MIRT model, illustrating and how items and the composites they measure can be graphically represented. Additionally, we discuss how estimated item parameters can vary based on the underlying latent ability distributions of the examinees. Analytical research highlighting the consequences of ignoring dimensionally and applying unidimensional IRT models, where the two-dimensional latent space is mapped onto a unidimensional, is reviewed. Next, we investigate three different approaches to understanding DIF from a MIRT standpoint: 1. Analytically Uniform and Nonuniform DIF: When two groups of interest have different two-dimensional ability distributions, a unidimensional model is estimated. 2. Accounting for complete latent ability space: We emphasize the importance of considering the entire latent ability space when using DIF conditional approaches, which leads to the mitigation of DIF effects. 3. Scenario-Based DIF: Even when underlying two-dimensional distributions are identical for two groups, differing problem-solving approaches can still lead to DIF. Modern software programs facilitate routine DIF procedures for comparing response data from two identified groups of interest. The real challenge is to identify why DIF could occur with flagged items. Thus, as a closing challenge, we present four items (Appendix A) from a standardized test and invite readers to identify which group was favored by a DIF analysis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11336-024-09965-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,4]],"date-time":"2024-04-04T21:20:27Z","timestamp":1712265627000},"page":"4-41","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Examining Differential Item Functioning from a Multidimensional IRT Perspective"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"89","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2391-3542","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Terry A.","family":"Ackerman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5374-8053","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ye","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/bmsp.12130"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR50","unstructured":"Wang, M. (1985). Fitting a unidimensional model multidimensional item response data: The effects of latent space misspecification on the application of IRT Unpublished manuscript, University of Iowa."},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-3984.1990.tb00754.x"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02294821"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327906mbr0102_10"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR48","unstructured":"Sympson, B. (1978) A model for testing with Multidimensional items. In Weiss, D. J. (ed) Proceedings of the 1977 Computerized Adaptive Testing Conference, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis."},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-3984.2000.tb01092.x"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-3984.1996.tb00501.x"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR28","unstructured":"Junker, B. , & Stout, W. F. (1991). Robustness of ability estimation when multiple traits are present with one trait dominant. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Modern Theories in Measurement: Problems and Issues. Montebello, Quebec."},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/01466216221084218"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/emip.12171"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4757-5644-9_12"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.MLR.0000076052.42628"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spray, J. , Davey, T. , Reckase, M. , Ackerman, T. & Carlson, J. (1990). Comparison of two logistic multidimensional item response theory models. ACT Research Report ONR90-8.","DOI":"10.1037\/e426802008-001"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR23","unstructured":"Ma, Y. , Ackerman, T. , Ip, E. , & Chung, J. (2023). The effect of the projective IRT model on DIF detection. IMPS 2023 Annual Meeting, College Park, Maryland, United States."},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0049124117701488"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR22","first-page":"1","article-title":"Investigating causal DIF via propensity score methods","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-3984.1992.tb00368.x"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BRM.42.3.847"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/014662169201600203"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR8","first-page":"335","article-title":"Addressing score bias and differential item functioning due to individual differences in response style","volume":"33","author":"Bolt","year":"2009","journal-title":"Applied Psychological Assessment,"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR52","unstructured":"Wolfram, 2020 Wolfram Research, Inc., (2020). Mathematica, (Version 12.2), [Computer Software]. Champaign, IL."},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02294536"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR41","first-page":"197","volume-title":"Differential item functioning","author":"Shealy","year":"1993"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0146621605279867"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jedm.12313"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-0317-7"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/014662169301700402"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-3984.2006.00018.x"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02294403"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR26","unstructured":"Holland, P. W. , & Thayer, D. T. (1988). Differential item functioning detection and the Mantel\u2013Haenszel procedure. In H. Wainer & H. I. Braun (Eds.), Test validity (pp.129\u2013145). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. http:\/\/www.books.google.co.ke\/books?isbn=1109103204."},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11336-008-9092-x"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/01466219922031437"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/014662169101500103"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/014662169802200404"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-89976-3"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-3984.1997.tb00510.x","article-title":"Variance estimation for differential test functioning based on Mantel\u2013Haenszel statistics","volume":"34","author":"Camilli","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Measurement"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR33","unstructured":"McKinley, R. L. , & Reckase, M. D. (1982). The use of the general rasch model with multidimensional item response data."},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-3992.1998.tb00619.x"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1348\/000711009X466835"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10705511.2019.1642754"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/014662169501900405"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR49","first-page":"147","volume-title":"Test validity","author":"Thissen","year":"1988"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-3992.1998.tb00619.x"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ets2.12157"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/01466216000242002"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0146621620909894"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/emip.12171"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02294572"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR39","unstructured":"Ramsay, J. O. (1990). A kernel smoothing approach to IRT modeling. Talk presented at the Annual Meeting of the Psychometric Society at Princeton New Jersey."},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/014662169401800404"},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR31","unstructured":"Lord, F. M. (1980). Applications of item response theory to practical testing problems. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum https:\/\/eric.ed.gov\/?id=ED312280."},{"key":"S0033312300000442_CR4","unstructured":"Ackerman, T. A. , McCallaum, B. , & Ngerano, G. (2014). Differential item functioning from a compensatory-noncompensatory perspective. Invited address to the International Congress of Educational Research, Haceppette University, Ankara, Turkey."}],"container-title":["Psychometrika"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11336-024-09965-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11336-024-09965-6\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11336-024-09965-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0033312300000442","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,14]],"date-time":"2025-02-14T02:52:24Z","timestamp":1739501544000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0033312300000442\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]}},"alternative-id":["S0033312300000442"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11336-024-09965-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["0033-3123","1860-0980"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0033-3123","type":"print"},{"value":"1860-0980","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]},"assertion":[{"value":"28 November 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"5 April 2024","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}},{"value":"Data and the Mathematica code used in the illustration will be made available on the Open Science Framework upon publication.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Open science statement"}}]}}