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Rodenticide application strategy is one factor that influences exposure risk. To understand the impact of application strategy, we tested residues of a first-generation anticoagulant (diphacinone) in liver tissue of radiotransmittered California ground squirrels (<jats:italic>Otospermophilus beecheyi<\/jats:italic>) following spot treatments, broadcast applications, and bait station applications in rangelands in central California during summer and autumn 2018\u20132019. We also documented the amount of bait applied, the mean time from bait application until death, and the proportion of ground squirrels that died belowground. We documented the greatest amount of bait applied via bait stations and the least by broadcast applications. We did not document a difference in diphacinone residues across any application strategy, although survivors had an order of magnitude lower concentration of diphacinone than mortalities, potentially lowering secondary exposure risk. We did not observe any difference among bait delivery methods in time from bait application to death, nor did we identify any impact of seasonality on any of the factors we tested. The vast majority of mortalities occurred belowground (82\u201391%), likely reducing secondary exposure. Secondary exposure could be further reduced by daily carcass searches. Results from this study better define risk associated with first-generation anticoagulant rodenticide applications, ultimately assisting in development of management programs that minimize non-target exposure.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-021-13977-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,21]],"date-time":"2021-04-21T08:05:18Z","timestamp":1618992318000},"page":"45891-45902","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Potential impact of diphacinone application strategies on secondary exposure risk in a common rodent pest: implications for management of California ground squirrels"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0656-8900","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roger A.","family":"Baldwin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Theresa A.","family":"Becchetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ryan","family":"Meinerz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Niamh","family":"Quinn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"13977_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1093\/jaoac\/86.2.412","volume":"86","author":"M Anastassiades","year":"2003","unstructured":"Anastassiades M, Lehotay SJ, \u0160tajnbaher D, Schenck FJ (2003) Fast and easy multiresidue method employing acetonitrile extraction\/partitioning and \u201cdispersive solid-phase extraction\u201d for the determination of pesticide residues in produce. 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