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For this purpose, citric acid at room temperature or at 40\u00a0\u00b0C was used to lixiviate the elements from\n                    <jats:italic>CS<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and then, the leachates were subjected to a thermal treatment (350\u00a0\u00b0C). The formation of maghemite (\u03b3-Fe\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    ) accompanied with calcite as the main mineralogical phase was observed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies. The development of nanospheres dispersed in the calcite matrix and the proportion of \u03b3-Fe\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    in the catalyst or composite material were revealed by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), respectively. The catalyst performance in the Fenton and photo-Fenton processes was investigated in the degradation of the indigo carmine dye (\n                    <jats:italic>IC<\/jats:italic>\n                    , 10\u00a0ppm), achieving an efficiency of 96.1\u2009\u00b1\u20092.1% in 60\u00a0min, using 5\u00a0mM of H\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    (30% weight) and UV-light (\n                    <jats:italic>\u03bb<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u2009365\u00a0nm). The activity of these materials was analyzed and compared as a function of the specific surface area and the % \u03b3-Fe\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    in the composites. The preparation of maghemite-rich nanocomposite using the\n                    <jats:italic>CS<\/jats:italic>\n                    leachate, generated with edible citric acid, is an excellent alternative to substitute materials produced with analytical grade reagents because in the removal of\n                    <jats:italic>IC<\/jats:italic>\n                    dye, it showed similar efficiency, kinetics, and stability, but with lesser requirements of lamp energy radiation and doses of photocatalyst and oxidant, with respect to data reported in the literature.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-025-36072-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,19]],"date-time":"2025-02-19T03:14:49Z","timestamp":1739934889000},"page":"1802-1819","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Copper metallurgical slag as a sustainable precursor of iron oxide photocatalysts to remove indigo carmine dye from water using the photo-Fenton process"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"33","author":[{"given":"Karen","family":"Valencia Garc\u00eda","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melisa","family":"Portilla-Sangabriel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Agileo","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Gordillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tania-Ariadna","family":"Garc\u00eda-Mej\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1129-4385","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosa-Mar\u00eda","family":"Ram\u00edrez-Zamora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"36072_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ahmad W, Joshi HC, Pandey S, Kumar V, Verma M (2023) An overview of green methods for Fe2O3 nanoparticle synthesis and their applications. 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This research did not involve human participants, human data, or human tissue samples, nor did it involve animal experiments. During the research process, special attention was paid to minimizing the environmental impact during the experimentation process, adopting principles of minimizing the use of chemicals and the generation of waste. The waste generated was disposed of in accordance with relevant environmental regulations. With these measures, we ensure ethical integrity and care for the environment. The design, experimentation, and execution of this research comply with the ethical and publication standards of the journal Environmental Science and Pollution Research.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical approval"}},{"value":"This research focuses on the development and evaluation of a catalyst synthesized from metallurgical slag for the elimination of organic contaminants. It does not involve human participants, human data, or human tissue samples.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to participate"}},{"value":"No human participates in the research \u201cCopper metallurgical slag as a sustainable precursor of iron oxide photocatalysts to remove indigo carmine dye from water using the Photo-Fenton process\u201d; thus, it is not required any consent to publish.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}]}}