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This study reports the synthesis, characterization, and photocatalytic performance of iron oxide nanocomposites using biochar carbonized at different temperatures for efficient degradation of malachite green (MG) and rhodamine B (RhB) dyes.\n                    <jats:italic>Portulacaria afra<\/jats:italic>\n                    leaves were carbonized at 200\u2103 to prepare Fe\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    @BC\u2013\n                    <jats:bold>1<\/jats:bold>\n                    , at 400\u2103 to prepare Fe\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    @BC\u2013\n                    <jats:bold>2<\/jats:bold>\n                    , and at 600\u2103 to prepare Fe\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    @BC\u2013\n                    <jats:bold>3<\/jats:bold>\n                    iron oxide nanocomposites. Powder X-ray diffraction analysis revealed a cubic Fe\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    crystalline phase of iron oxide regardless of the carbonization temperature of the biochar. HRTEM images showed different morphologies with average particle sizes of 11.2\u201313.3 nm. Energy band gaps of 1.85 eV (Fe\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    @BC\u2013\n                    <jats:bold>1<\/jats:bold>\n                    ), 1.79 eV (Fe\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    @BC\u2013\n                    <jats:bold>2<\/jats:bold>\n                    ), and 1.97 eV (Fe\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    @BC\u2013\n                    <jats:bold>3<\/jats:bold>\n                    ) were obtained from the Tauc plot. The as-prepared iron oxide nanocomposites were used as photocatalysts for the degradation of malachite green (MG), rhodamine B (RhB), and their binary mixture under visible light irradiation. Fe\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    @BC-\n                    <jats:bold>2<\/jats:bold>\n                    exhibited the highest photocatalytic degradation efficiencies of 99.74% for MG and 98.89% for RhB in the binary dye mixture. Optimal degradation of malachite green and rhodamine B was achieved at pH 10 and the iron oxide nanocomposites exhibited good photostability and reusability over five consecutive cycles.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-025-37025-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T20:56:29Z","timestamp":1760561789000},"page":"23588-23606","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Photocatalytic degradation of single and binary mixture of malachite green and rhodamine B dyes by biochar-capped iron oxide nanocomposites"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"32","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8581-2387","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter A.","family":"Ajibade","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thandi B.","family":"Mbuyazi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"37025_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rineng.2024.102433","volume":"23","author":"M Afshar","year":"2024","unstructured":"Afshar M, Mofatteh S (2024) Biochar for a sustainable future: environmentally friendly production and diverse applications. 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