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The use of biofuels gives unique characteristics to the Brazilian vehicle fleet. In this study, PM\n                    <jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    samples were collected in the city at the beginning of the lockdown (from March to August 2020) and in the same period in 2022 (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200993 samples), after the full economic reopening. The source apportionment by the FA-MLR approach showed that vehicular traffic, biomass burning, and secondary formation contributed to PM\n                    <jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    concentrations. Biomass burning made remarkable contributions in both years, and was the main source in 2020. Vehicular traffic was the primary source after the economic reopening. In 2020, concentrations of most pollutants (water-soluble ions, elements, PAHs, and their derivatives) decreased compared to previous studies, but the air pollution in 2022 reached levels close to the pre-pandemic. Additionally, Cu and Mo, elements linked to vehicular traffic, unexpectedly decreased in 2022 in relation to the lockdown and pre-pandemic period. These results were associated with the decrease in ethanol (and consequently, increase in gasoline) consumption in flexible-fuel vehicles, due to increased fuel prices. Biomass burning markers (Rb, retene, and anhydride monosaccharides) showed no change during and after the pandemic, indicating that this activity was not affected by social distancing measures. The resurgence of anthropogenic activities in 2022 resulted in increasing health risks due to exposure to carcinogenic species.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-026-37733-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]],"date-time":"2026-04-20T08:37:22Z","timestamp":1776674242000},"page":"7017-7041","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Changes in air composition driven by differences in biofuel consumption"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"33","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4396-1448","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Camila Novais","family":"Farias","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"D\u00e9bora","family":"Pagliuso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Adriana","family":"Grandis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9 Vin\u00edcius","family":"Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Clara Rodrigues","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lilian Lefol Nani","family":"Guarieiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Paulo Eduardo","family":"Artaxo-Netto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marcos Silveira","family":"Buckeridge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"P\u00e9rola","family":"de Castro Vasconcellos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"37733_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2008.10.014","volume":"43","author":"R Abrantes","year":"2009","unstructured":"Abrantes R, Assun\u00e7\u00e3o JV, Pesquero CR, Bruns RE, N\u00f3brega RP (2009) Emission of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from gasohol and ethanol vehicles. 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