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Given the need to reduce feed costs and mitigate environmentally harmful emissions from rumen fermentation, SMS was evaluated as a partial replacement for corn silage at inclusion levels of 10% (T1), 20% (T2), and 40% (T3). These three treatments were compared to a control diet consisting of 100% corn silage, to assess rumen fermentation characteristics, nutrient digestibility and biogas emissions, thereby determining the feasibility of SMS as a functional feed component in sustainable ruminant production systems. Significant improvements (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.001) were observed in dry matter digestibility, which increased from 41.1% in the control to 46.8% and 48.1% in the T1 and T2 treatments, respectively. Likewise, neutral detergent fiber digestibility rose from 56.7% (control) to 62.3% (T1) and 65.1% (T2). SMS inclusion significantly decreased methane (CH\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    ) emissions (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.001), with the 10% SMS treatment reducing CH\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    from 65.6 to 14.4 mg\/g DM, a reduction of about 78%. Ammonia levels also declined significantly (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.001) from 1025 mmol\/g DM in the control to 420 mmol\/g DM in the T1 group. Hydrogen sulfide emissions showed a similar pattern (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.001), dropping from 7828 mmol\/g DM (control) to 1817 mmol\/g DM (20% SMS). Although total volatile fatty acids were not significantly affected, acetate levels increased (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.046) to 74.9% (T2), and valerate was significantly higher (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.001) in the T1 group (2.58%). These results indicate that replacing 10\u201320% of corn silage with\n                    <jats:italic>P. ostreatus<\/jats:italic>\n                    SMS can significantly enhance nutrient digestibility and reduce environmental emissions, without affecting fermentation characteristics. SMS is an economical, eco-friendly, and promising feed additive for sustainable ruminant farming.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-026-37792-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T02:21:59Z","timestamp":1777947719000},"page":"7753-7764","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Dietary inclusion of Pleurotus ostreatus spent mushroom substrate in corn silage-based diets: effects on rumen fermentation, nutrient digestibility, and greenhouse gas emissions using a RUSITEC system"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"33","author":[{"given":"Chika C.","family":"Anotaenwere","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Omoanghe S.","family":"Isikhuemhen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter A.","family":"Dele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed E.","family":"Kholif","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kiran","family":"Subedi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Wuaku","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joel O.","family":"Alabi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oludotun O.","family":"Adelusi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kelechi A.","family":"Ike","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deborah O.","family":"Okedoyin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"DeAndrea","family":"Gray","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6630-9292","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Uchenna Y.","family":"Anele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"37792_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3934\/microbiol.2025001","volume":"11","author":"CC Anotaenwere","year":"2024","unstructured":"Anotaenwere CC, Isikhuemhen OS, Dele PA, Wuaku M, Alabi JO, Adelusi OO, Okedoyin DO, Ike KA, Gray D, Kholif AE, Anele UY (2024) Ensiled Pleurotus ostreatus based spent mushroom substrate from corn: in vitro gas production, greenhouse gas emissions, nutrient degradation, and ruminal fermentation characteristics. 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