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The composite was characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and other techniques. The factors affecting the Pb(II) removal performance in batch adsorption experiments, including contact time, adsorbent dosage, and solution pH, were evaluated using the response surface methodology (RSM) approach with central composite design (CCD). The analysis revealed that under optimal conditions for Pb(II) removal (107.6 min, 24.35 mg, pH 6.62, at 25\u00a0\u00b0C), Pb(II) removal performance reached 100%. Kinetic studies indicated a rapid adsorption process, well-conformed with the pseudo-second order model. Isotherm analysis affirmed the applicability of the Langmuir model, suggesting a monolayer adsorption with a maximum adsorption capacity of 60.29\u00a0mg\u00a0g\u207b\n                    <jats:sup>1<\/jats:sup>\n                    . The adsorption process was endothermic and spontaneous. The Pb\n                    <jats:sup>2+<\/jats:sup>\n                    ion-loaded spent adsorbent (CFA\/g-C\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    N\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    \/Bi\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    CO\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    @Pb\n                    <jats:sup>2+<\/jats:sup>\n                    ) was then reused to degrade rhodamine B (RhB). The photocatalytic experiments for RhB over CFA\/g-C\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    N\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    \/Bi\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    CO\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    @Pb\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    \u207a under optimal conditions demonstrated excellent photocatalytic performance (&lt;\u200999%) and high reusability (up to 5 cycles). This highlights that the CFA\/g-C\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    N\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    \/Bi\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    CO\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    @Pb\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    \u207a is a potential photocatalyst for dye remediation in wastewater treatment applications. Additionally, CFA\/g-C\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    N\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    \/Bi\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    CO\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    @Pb\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    \u207a demonstrated to be responsive for latent fingerprint (LFP) detection on a variety of substrates. As a result, it is a useful labeling agent for LFP detection in forensic authentication.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-026-38106-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T22:10:19Z","timestamp":1787350219000},"page":"13794-13816","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Adsorption of Pb2+ ion using coal fly ash\/g-C3N4\/Bi2O2CO3 coupled with photocatalytic and forensic applications of spent adsorbent"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"33","author":[{"given":"M. E. 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