{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T19:20:07Z","timestamp":1792783207089,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789948800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789948800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Haifa","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02f009v59","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["GeroScience"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Executive and motor function are bidirectionally linked and decline as we\u00a0age, yet motor-cognitive links are predominantly studied in older adults,\u00a0while studies focused on midlife report mixed results. We aimed to\u00a0evaluate whether motor tasks of varying complexity reflect executive\u00a0function in midlife, a sensitive window for identifying early cognitive-functional\u00a0risks that are otherwise undetected, thus informing timely\u00a0intervention strategies. Using a cross-sectional study design, we assessed\u00a0executive function with the trail making test and the stroop color-word\u00a0test, calculating a composite cognitive score. Motor function was assessed\u00a0by low complexity unipedal stance test and three-min step test, and the\u00a0complexity by the one-minute Burpee test and the four step square test\u00a0(FSST). A total of N = 181 participants completed all tasks\u00a0(48.8 \u00b1 5.6 years, 53% women). Only complex motor tasks were\u00a0significantly associated with the composite cognitive score (Burpee\u00a0rho = 0.28,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 0.005; FSST rho = -0.29,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt; 0.001).\u00a0In a multiple linear\u00a0regression model predicting the composite cognitive score based on motor\u00a0task performance, FSST and age were the only significant contributing\u00a0variables (adjusted R\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    = 0.17,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt; 0.001; FSST B = \u22120.29, 95%\u00a0confidence interval (\u22120.41, \u22120.11), controlling for age, sex, BMI, and\u00a0education). Associations between motor performance and executive\u00a0function emerged only during complex motor tasks, suggesting that\u00a0midlife functional reserves must be challenged to unmask subtle\u00a0cognitive-motor changes. Widely used motor assessments often exhibit\u00a0ceiling effects that mask midlife heterogeneity. We advocate for\u00a0integrating graded, age-adjusted complex tasks into the intrinsic capacity\u00a0framework, improving early risk stratification and informing personalized\u00a0interventions for promotion of healthy aging.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-026-02542-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T02:55:47Z","timestamp":1789959347000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Complex, but not simple, motor tasks assessment improves detection of motor-cognitive interaction in midlife"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-3741-4054","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shiri","family":"Embon Magal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0474-1888","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roy","family":"Tzemah-Shahar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kfir","family":"Asraf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1855-1199","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maayan","family":"Agmon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"2542_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Diamond A. Executive functions. Annual review of psychology. 2013;64(1):135\u201368. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143750","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143750"},{"issue":"8","key":"2542_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617718000425","volume":"24","author":"ML Hughes","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hughes ML, Agrigoroaei S, Jeon M, Bruzzese M, Lachman ME. Change in cognitive performance from midlife into old age: findings from the midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2018;24(8):805\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1355617718000425.","journal-title":"J Int Neuropsychol Soc"},{"issue":"1","key":"2542_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-80866-1","volume":"11","author":"HJ Ferguson","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ferguson HJ, Brunsdon VEA, Bradford EEF. The developmental trajectories of executive function from adolescence to old age. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):1382. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-020-80866-1.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"5","key":"2542_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afx084","volume":"46","author":"JK Kueper","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kueper JK, Speechley M, Lingum NR, Montero-Odasso M. Motor function and incident dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Age Ageing. 2017;46(5):729\u201338. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ageing\/afx084.","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"issue":"1","key":"2542_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1093\/epirev\/mxs004","volume":"35","author":"SA Clouston","year":"2013","unstructured":"Clouston SA, Brewster P, Kuh D, Richards M, Cooper R, Hardy R, et al. The dynamic relationship between physical function and cognition in longitudinal aging cohorts. Epidemiol Rev. 2013;35(1):33\u201350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/epirev\/mxs004.","journal-title":"Epidemiol Rev"},{"issue":"4","key":"2542_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glab168","volume":"77","author":"JM Blodgett","year":"2022","unstructured":"Blodgett JM, Cooper R, Davis DHJ, Kuh D, Hardy R. Associations of word memory, verbal fluency, processing speed, and crystallized cognitive ability with one-legged balance performance in mid- and later life. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2022;77(4):807\u201316. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/gerona\/glab168.","journal-title":"J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"2542_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2214647","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.14647","volume":"5","author":"TA Collyer","year":"2022","unstructured":"Collyer TA, Murray AM, Woods RL, Storey E, Chong T-J, Ryan J, et al. Association of dual decline in cognition and gait speed with risk of dementia in older adults. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(5):e2214647. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.14647.","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"issue":"3","key":"2542_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2010.08.008","volume":"35","author":"E Al-Yahya","year":"2011","unstructured":"Al-Yahya E, Dawes H, Smith L, Dennis A, Howells K, Cockburn J. Cognitive motor interference while walking: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2011;35(3):715\u201328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2010.08.008.","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"2542_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/1980-5918.033.AO42","volume":"33","author":"LP Lustosa","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lustosa LP, Silva JSd, Pereira DAG, Assis MG, Pereira LSM. Physiological risk of falls, physical and aerobic capacity in community-dwelling elderly. Fisioter Mov. 2020;33:e003342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1590\/1980-5918.033.AO42.","journal-title":"Fisioter Mov"},{"key":"2542_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1590\/1980-5918.033.AO42","volume":"65","author":"C Pereira","year":"2016","unstructured":"Pereira C, Baptista F, Cruz-Ferreira A. Role of physical activity, physical fitness, and chronic health conditions on the physical independence of community-dwelling older adults over a 5-year period. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2016;65:45\u201353. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1590\/1980-5918.033.AO42.","journal-title":"Arch Gerontol Geriatr"},{"key":"2542_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archger.2017.10.001","volume":"74","author":"VL Keevil","year":"2018","unstructured":"Keevil VL, Luben R, Hayat S, Sayer AA, Wareham NJ, Khaw K-T. Physical capability predicts mortality in late mid-life as well as in old age: findings from a large British cohort study. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2018;74:77\u201382. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.archger.2017.10.001.","journal-title":"Arch Gerontol Geriatr"},{"key":"2542_CR12","volume-title":"World report on ageing and health","author":"Organization WH","year":"2015","unstructured":"Organization WH. World report on ageing and health. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2015."},{"issue":"2","key":"2542_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.14336\/ad.2021.0818","volume":"13","author":"Y Zhou","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhou Y, Ma L. Intrinsic capacity in older adults: recent advances. Aging Dis. 2022;13(2):353\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14336\/ad.2021.0818.","journal-title":"Aging Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"2542_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/gly148","volume":"74","author":"M Montero-Odasso","year":"2019","unstructured":"Montero-Odasso M, Almeida QJ, Bherer L, Burhan AM, Camicioli R, Doyon J, et al. Consensus on shared measures of mobility and cognition: from the Canadian Consortium on Neurodegeneration in Aging (CCNA). J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2019;74(6):897\u2013909. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/gerona\/gly148.","journal-title":"J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"2542_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1177\/0165025414533","volume":"39","author":"ME Lachman","year":"2015","unstructured":"Lachman ME, Teshale S, Agrigoroaei S. Midlife as a pivotal period in the life course: balancing growth and decline at the crossroads of youth and old age. Int J Behav Dev. 2015;39(1):20\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0165025414533.","journal-title":"Int J Behav Dev"},{"issue":"10","key":"2542_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.13112","volume":"2","author":"S Studenski","year":"2019","unstructured":"Studenski S. Gait speed reveals clues to lifelong health. JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(10):e1913112. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.13112.","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"issue":"7","key":"2542_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10070854","volume":"10","author":"N Atallah","year":"2018","unstructured":"Atallah N, Adjibade M, Lelong H, Hercberg S, Galan P, Assmann KE, et al. How healthy lifestyle factors at midlife relate to healthy aging. Nutrients. 2018;10(7):854. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu10070854.","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"issue":"7-8","key":"2542_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1080\/87565641.2017.1399129","volume":"42","author":"ME Spedden","year":"2017","unstructured":"Spedden ME, Malling ASB, Andersen KK, Jensen BR. Association between gross-motor and executive function depends on age and motor task complexity. Dev Neuropsychol. 2017;42(7\u20138):495\u2013506. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/87565641.2017.1399129.","journal-title":"Dev Neuropsychol"},{"key":"2542_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00668","volume":"11","author":"T Xiao","year":"2020","unstructured":"Xiao T, Yang L, Smith L, Loprinzi PD, Veronese N, Yao J, et al. Correlation between cognition and balance among middle-aged and older adults observed through a Tai Chi intervention program. Front Psychol. 2020;11:668. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00668.","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"issue":"10","key":"2542_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1913123","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.13123","volume":"2","author":"LJH Rasmussen","year":"2019","unstructured":"Rasmussen LJH, Caspi A, Ambler A, Broadbent JM, Cohen HJ, d\u2019Arbeloff T, et al. Association of neurocognitive and physical function with gait speed in midlife. JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(10):e1913123. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.13123.","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"2542_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-99-1627-6_3","volume":"1419","author":"Y Yang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yang Y, Wang D, Hou W, Li H. Cognitive decline associated with aging. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2023;1419:25\u201346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-981-99-1627-6_3.","journal-title":"Adv Exp Med Biol"},{"key":"2542_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.847186","volume":"13","author":"J Nogueira","year":"2022","unstructured":"Nogueira J, Gerardo B, Santana I, Simoes MR, Freitas S. The assessment of cognitive reserve: a systematic review of the most used quantitative measurement methods of cognitive reserve for aging. Front Psychol. 2022;13:847186. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.847186.","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"2542_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.3233\/jad-220151","volume":"89","author":"M Leit\u00e3o","year":"2022","unstructured":"Leit\u00e3o M, Sa\u00fade A, Bou\u00e7a-Machado R, Ferreira JJ. Assessment tools to evaluate motor function in people with dementia: a systematic review. J Alzheimers Dis. 2022;89(1):13\u201324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/jad-220151.","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"issue":"11","key":"2542_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3096","DOI":"10.1111\/jgs.17979","volume":"70","author":"R Holtzer","year":"2022","unstructured":"Holtzer R, Zhu X, Rosso AL, Rosano C. Cognitive reserve and risk of mobility impairment in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2022;70(11):3096\u2013104. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/jgs.17979.","journal-title":"J Am Geriatr Soc"},{"issue":"2","key":"2542_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1519\/jpt.0000000000000024","volume":"38","author":"CK Balasubramanian","year":"2015","unstructured":"Balasubramanian CK. The community balance and mobility scale alleviates the ceiling effects observed in the currently used gait and balance assessments for the community-dwelling older adults. Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy. 2015;38(2):78\u201389. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1519\/jpt.0000000000000024.","journal-title":"Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy"},{"issue":"4","key":"2542_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2015.03.349","volume":"41","author":"CK Balasubramanian","year":"2015","unstructured":"Balasubramanian CK, Clark DJ, Gouelle A. Validity of the gait variability index in older adults: effect of aging and mobility impairments. Gait Posture. 2015;41(4):941\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2015.03.349.","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"issue":"4","key":"2542_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2024.02.001","volume":"47","author":"S Dohm-Hansen","year":"2024","unstructured":"Dohm-Hansen S, English JA, Lavelle A, Fitzsimons CP, Lucassen PJ, Nolan YM. The \u2018middle-aging\u2019 brain. Trends Neurosci. 2024;47(4):259\u201372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tins.2024.02.001.","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci"},{"issue":"1","key":"2542_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1519\/00139143-200704000-00003","volume":"30","author":"BA Springer","year":"2007","unstructured":"Springer BA, Marin R, Cyhan T, Roberts H, Gill NW. Normative values for the unipedal stance test with eyes open and closed. J Geriatr Phys Ther. 2007;30(1):8\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1519\/00139143-200704000-00003.","journal-title":"J Geriatr Phys Ther"},{"issue":"11","key":"2542_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3240","DOI":"10.1519\/jsc.0000000000000253","volume":"29","author":"RW Bohannon","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bohannon RW, Bubela DJ, Wang Y-C, Magasi SS, Gershon RC. Six-minute walk test vs. three-minute step test for measuring functional endurance. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;29(11):3240\u20134. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1519\/jsc.0000000000000253.","journal-title":"J Strength Cond Res"},{"issue":"2","key":"2542_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.5114\/pq.2018.73368","volume":"25","author":"B Ban","year":"2017","unstructured":"Ban B, Sev\u0161ek F, Rugelj D. A comparison of the ceiling effect between Berg Balance Scale and Mini-BESTest in a group of balance trained community-dwelling older adults. Physiother Q. 2017;25(2):3\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5114\/pq.2018.73368.","journal-title":"Physiother Q"},{"key":"2542_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2024.1368052","volume":"16","author":"V Wunderle","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wunderle V, Kuzu TD, Tscherpel C, Fink GR, Grefkes C, Weiss PH. Age- and sex-related changes in motor functions: a comprehensive assessment and component analysis. Front Aging Neurosci. 2024;16:1368052. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnagi.2024.1368052.","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"issue":"1","key":"2542_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-017-0577-5","volume":"6","author":"M Moore","year":"2017","unstructured":"Moore M, Barker K. The validity and reliability of the four square step test in different adult populations: a systematic review. Syst Rev. 2017;6(1):187. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13643-017-0577-5.","journal-title":"Syst Rev"},{"key":"2542_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-025-01803-6","author":"R Tzemah-Shahar","year":"2024","unstructured":"Tzemah-Shahar R, Shapiro I, Kodesh E, Asher M, Friedlander Y, Hochner H, et al. Physical-capacity based evaluation battery for rate of aging at midlife: a preliminary study. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11357-025-01803-6.","journal-title":"Physical-capacity based evaluation battery for rate of aging at midlife: a preliminary study"},{"issue":"5","key":"2542_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1915","DOI":"10.1007\/s11845-025-04049-5","volume":"194","author":"S Demirdel","year":"2025","unstructured":"Demirdel S, Y\u0131lmaz R, K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck S, S\u00f6yler O. The association between cognitive function and physical performance in established users of a lower limb prosthesis. Ir J Med Sci. 2025;194(5):1915\u201321. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11845-025-04049-5.","journal-title":"Ir J Med Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"2542_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.14802\/jmd.20146","volume":"14","author":"J Kim","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kim J, Kim I, Kim YE, Koh SB. The four square step test for assessing cognitively demanding dynamic balance in Parkinson\u2019s disease patients. J Mov Disord. 2021;14(3):208\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14802\/jmd.20146.","journal-title":"J Mov Disord"},{"issue":"3","key":"2542_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1519\/jpt.0000000000000463","volume":"48","author":"G Kaya Aytutuldu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Kaya Aytutuldu G, Cavlak U, Aytutuldu \u0130, Topal EE, Akg\u00fcl YS. Discrimination of normal cognition versus mild cognitive impairment in ambulatory older adults using the 4-square step test: a machine learning approach. Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy. 2025;48(3):125\u201337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1519\/jpt.0000000000000463.","journal-title":"Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy"},{"key":"2542_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Podstawski R, Markowski P, Clark CC, Choszcz D, Ih\u00e1sz F, Stojiljkovi\u0107 S, et al. International standards for the 3\u2010Minute Burpee Test: high\u2010intensity motor performance. Journal of human kinetics. 2019;69:137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2478%2Fhukin-2019-0021.","DOI":"10.2478\/hukin-2019-0021"},{"issue":"3","key":"2542_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617709090626","volume":"15","author":"I S\u00c1Nchez-Cubillo","year":"2009","unstructured":"S\u00c1Nchez-Cubillo I, Peri\u00c1\u00d1Ez JA, Adrover-Roig D, Rodr\u00cdGuez-S\u00c1Nchez JM, R\u00cdOs-Lago M, Tirapu J, et al. Construct validity of the trail making test: role of task-switching, working memory, inhibition\/interference control, and visuomotor abilities. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2009;15(3):438\u201350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1355617709090626.","journal-title":"J Int Neuropsychol Soc"},{"issue":"4","key":"2542_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1080\/01688639508405143","volume":"17","author":"EA Gaudino","year":"1995","unstructured":"Gaudino EA, Geisler MW, Squires NK. Construct validity in the trail making test: what makes part B harder? J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1995;17(4):529\u201335. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/01688639508405143.","journal-title":"J Clin Exp Neuropsychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"2542_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-16431-9","volume":"12","author":"I Linari","year":"2022","unstructured":"Linari I, Juantorena GE, Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez A, Petroni A, Kamienkowski JE. Unveiling trail making test: visual and manual trajectories indexing multiple executive processes. Sci Rep. 2022;12(1):14265. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-022-16431-9.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"2542_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.00557","author":"F Scarpina","year":"2017","unstructured":"Scarpina F, Tagini S. The stroop color and word test. Front Psychol. 2017. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.00557.","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"issue":"5","key":"2542_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1755","DOI":"10.1002\/cpp.2742","volume":"29","author":"E de Beurs","year":"2022","unstructured":"de Beurs E, Boehnke JR, Fried EI. Common measures or common metrics? A plea to harmonize measurement results. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2022;29(5):1755\u201367. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/cpp.2742.","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Psychother"},{"issue":"3","key":"2542_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.5709\/acp-0239-y","volume":"14","author":"P Hirsch","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hirsch P, Nolden S, Declerck M, Koch I. Common cognitive control processes underlying performance in task-switching and dual-task contexts. Adv Cogn Psychol. 2018;14(3):62\u201374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5709\/acp-0239-y.","journal-title":"Adv Cogn Psychol"},{"key":"2542_CR44","unstructured":"Morrow JR Jr, Mood D, Disch J, Kang M. Measurement and evaluation in human performance. 5E ed. Human kinetics; 2015."},{"issue":"3","key":"2542_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1080\/09720502.2010.10700699","volume":"13","author":"H Midi","year":"2010","unstructured":"Midi H, Sarkar SK, Rana S. Collinearity diagnostics of binary logistic regression model. J Interdiscip Math. 2010;13(3):253\u201367. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09720502.2010.10700699.","journal-title":"J Interdiscip Math"},{"issue":"6","key":"2542_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1038\/s43587-025-00875-5","volume":"5","author":"A Van Zwieten","year":"2025","unstructured":"Van Zwieten A, Samtani S, Sawan M, Occhipinti J-A, Miranda JJ, Khalatbari-Soltani S. Life-course approaches are needed to foster equitable healthy aging. Nat Aging. 2025;5(6):952\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s43587-025-00875-5.","journal-title":"Nat Aging"},{"issue":"7510","key":"2542_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1038\/511405a","volume":"511","author":"L Fontana","year":"2014","unstructured":"Fontana L, Kennedy BK, Longo VD, Seals D, Melov S. Medical research: treat ageing. Nature. 2014;511(7510):405\u20137.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2542_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2022.964473","volume":"14","author":"M Agmon","year":"2022","unstructured":"Agmon M, Youngstedt SD, Shochat T. Editorial: integrating neurophysiological and behavioral changes from midlife to old age. Front Aging Neurosci. 2022;14:964473. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnagi.2022.964473.","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"key":"2542_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2018.06.001","volume":"110","author":"RM Dodds","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dodds RM, Kuh D, Sayer AA, Cooper R. Can measures of physical performance in mid-life improve the clinical prediction of disability in early old age? Findings from a British birth cohort study. Exp Gerontol. 2018;110:118\u201324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.exger.2018.06.001.","journal-title":"Exp Gerontol"},{"issue":"10","key":"2542_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6420","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhac514","volume":"33","author":"P Van Ruitenbeek","year":"2023","unstructured":"Van Ruitenbeek P, Santos Monteiro T, Chalavi S, King B, Cuypers K, Sunaert S, et al. Interactions between the aging brain and motor task complexity across the lifespan: balancing brain activity resource demand and supply. Cereb Cortex. 2023;33(10):6420\u201334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cercor\/bhac514.","journal-title":"Cereb Cortex"},{"issue":"5","key":"2542_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000002864","volume":"126","author":"P Schober","year":"2018","unstructured":"Schober P, Boer C, Schwarte LA. Correlation coefficients: appropriate use and interpretation. Anesth Analg. 2018;126(5):1763\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1213\/ANE.0000000000002864.","journal-title":"Anesth Analg"},{"issue":"4","key":"2542_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1519\/JPT.0000000000000456","volume":"48","author":"ME Kazanski","year":"2025","unstructured":"Kazanski ME, LaFollette CE, Wells MD, Rosenberg MC, McKay JL, Hajjar I, et al. Mild cognitive impairment is associated with reduced dynamic balance performance and altered lower-extremity kinematics during the four square step test. J Geriatr Phys Ther. 2025;48(4):210\u201322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1519\/JPT.0000000000000456.","journal-title":"J Geriatr Phys Ther"},{"issue":"3","key":"2542_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1177\/1533317517753361","volume":"33","author":"S Tomaszewski Farias","year":"2018","unstructured":"Tomaszewski Farias S, Schmitter-Edgecombe M, Weakley A, Harvey D, Denny KG, Barba C, et al. Compensation strategies in older adults: association with cognition and everyday function. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen. 2018;33(3):184\u201391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1533317517753361.","journal-title":"Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen"},{"key":"2542_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Aiello AE, Momkus J, Stebbins RC, Zhang YS, Martin CL, Yang YC, et al. Risk factors for Alzheimer\u2019s disease and cognitive function before middle age in a U.S. representative population-based study. Lancet Reg Health Am. 2025;45:101087. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.lana.2025.101087.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lana.2025.101087"},{"issue":"7","key":"2542_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e448","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-7568(24)00110-7","volume":"5","author":"FY Hsiao","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hsiao FY, Chen LK. Intrinsic capacity assessment works-let\u2019s move on actions. Lancet Healthy Longev. 2024;5(7):e448\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2666-7568(24)00110-7.","journal-title":"Lancet Healthy Longev"},{"key":"2542_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chhetri JK, Harwood RH, Ma L, Michel J-P, Chan P. Intrinsic capacity and healthy ageing. Age and Ageing. 2022;51(11). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ageing\/afac239.","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afac239"},{"key":"2542_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afae162","author":"Y Zhao","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhao Y, Jiang Y, Tang P, Wang X, Guo Y, Tang L. Adverse health effects of declined intrinsic capacity in middle-aged and older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Age Ageing. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ageing\/afae162.","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"2542_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2021.110411","volume":"122","author":"E van der Kruk","year":"2021","unstructured":"van der Kruk E, Silverman AK, Reilly P, Bull AMJ. Compensation due to age-related decline in sit-to-stand and sit-to-walk. J Biomech. 2021;122:110411. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2021.110411.","journal-title":"J Biomech"},{"key":"2542_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fragi.2025.1573778","volume":"6","author":"TB Inns","year":"2025","unstructured":"Inns TB, Pina I, Macgregor LJ, Dudchenko PA, Crockett RA, Hunter AM. Age-related gait adaptations: analysis of temporal gait parameters and variability, and muscle activation across flat vs. uneven surfaces in young, middle-aged, and older adults. Front Aging. 2025;6:1573778. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fragi.2025.1573778.","journal-title":"Front Aging"},{"issue":"2","key":"2542_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1590\/1980-57642015dn92000009","volume":"9","author":"CA Faria","year":"2015","unstructured":"Faria CA, Alves HVD, Charchat-Fichman H. The most frequently used tests for assessing executive functions in aging. Dement Neuropsychol. 2015;9(2):149\u201355. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1590\/1980-57642015dn92000009.","journal-title":"Dement Neuropsychol"},{"issue":"6","key":"2542_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5772","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.205667","volume":"16","author":"D Zeller","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zeller D, Hiew S, Odorfer T, Nguemeni C. Considering the response in addition to the challenge - a narrative review in appraisal of a motor reserve framework. Aging (Albany NY). 2024;16(6):5772\u201391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18632\/aging.205667.","journal-title":"Aging (Albany NY)"},{"issue":"6","key":"2542_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/braincomms\/fcaf412","volume":"7","author":"T Kozlovski","year":"2025","unstructured":"Kozlovski T, Maidan I, Gazit E, Droby A, Thaler A, Hausdorff JM, et al. Quantifying motor-cognitive reserve using a novel multi-modal stress test. Brain Commun. 2025;7(6):fcaf412. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/braincomms\/fcaf412.","journal-title":"Brain Commun"},{"key":"2542_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2025.1686509","volume":"19","author":"S K\u00f6gler","year":"2025","unstructured":"K\u00f6gler S, Hiew S, Peach R, Schindeh\u00fctte M, Pham M, Nguemeni C, et al. Unlocking motor reserve: behavioral and neuroimaging correlates of locomotor adaptability from youth to old age. Front Syst Neurosci. 2025;19:1686509. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnsys.2025.1686509.","journal-title":"Front Syst Neurosci"},{"key":"2542_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2024.1403065","volume":"18","author":"A Giustiniani","year":"2024","unstructured":"Giustiniani A, Quartarone A. Defining the concept of reserve in the motor domain: a systematic review. Front Neurosci. 2024;18:1403065. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnins.2024.1403065.","journal-title":"Front Neurosci"},{"key":"2542_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1631958","volume":"19","author":"TJ Klotzbier","year":"2025","unstructured":"Klotzbier TJ, Schott N. Scaffolding theory of maturation, cognition, motor performance, and motor skill acquisition: a revised and comprehensive framework for understanding motor-cognitive interactions across the lifespan. Front Hum Neurosci. 2025;19:1631958. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1631958.","journal-title":"Front Hum Neurosci"}],"container-title":["GeroScience"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11357-026-02542-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11357-026-02542-y","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11357-026-02542-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T02:55:56Z","timestamp":1789959356000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11357-026-02542-y"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]]},"references-count":65,"alternative-id":["2542"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11357-026-02542-y","relation":{},"ISSN":["2509-2723"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2509-2723","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]]},"assertion":[{"value":"13 January 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"9 September 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 September 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}]}}