{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T22:44:51Z","timestamp":1792104291021,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787270400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004809","name":"California Office of Traffic Safety","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["TR23020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TR23020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Urban Health"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Active transportation increases physical activity and improves health, yet rising pedestrian and bicyclist deaths are a growing public health concern. In North America, regional agencies allocate transportation investments to support safe walking and bicycling. While comparing crash statistic across regions is standard, accurate safety assessment requires exposure data, or the volume of active transportation users, to determine crash rates. Calculating spatial variation in crash rates is difficult given the lack of spatially detailed, regionally extensive exposure data. Our goal is to develop a method to compare bicycling and pedestrian safety between cities, to inform decisions on where investments are most needed to reduce injury and death. We measured exposure as miles walked or biked in California\u2019s 15 largest cities, using a validated model and data from the US Census, National Household Travel Survey, OpenStreetMap, and a statewide crash database. We performed linear regression with exposure and crashes, ranking cities by safety based on residuals. Higher positive residuals indicated less safe cities for active transportation. Including exposure shifted which cities had the highest safety risks for bicyclists and pedestrians. Safety differences were greatest in cities with high percentages of Hispanic residents, where crash-to-volume ratios showed unsafe conditions. Our method enables robust regional assessment of bike and pedestrian safety, allowing health departments and planners to identify where infrastructure investments can effectively prevent injuries and deaths, reduce health disparities, and create environments supporting active living. Our approach is scalable to major population centers nationwide, supporting evidence-based decisions that protect public health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11524-026-01126-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T15:16:01Z","timestamp":1787325361000},"page":"1008-1021","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Improving the Denominator of Safety Rankings for Bicyclist and Pedestrian Safety"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"103","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-4271-6912","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Caitlyn Jeri","family":"Linehan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Trisalyn","family":"Nelson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Achituv","family":"Cohen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"1126_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.1240","volume":"6","author":"SK Ahmed","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ahmed SK, Mohammed MG, Abdulqadir SO, El-Kader RGA, El-Shall NA, Chandran D, et al. Road traffic accidental injuries and deaths: a neglected global health issue. Health Sci Rep. 2023;6: e1240. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/hsr2.1240.","journal-title":"Health Sci Rep"},{"key":"1126_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1071\/HE13075","volume":"25","author":"M Stevenson","year":"2014","unstructured":"Stevenson M, Thompson J. On the road to prevention: road injury and health promotion. Health Promot J Aust. 2014;25:4\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1071\/HE13075.","journal-title":"Health Promot J Aust"},{"key":"1126_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bangdiwala SI. Health and safety implications of active transport. In: Tiwari G, Varghese M, Bhalla K, editors. Safe and sustainable mobility by design: safe cities, vehicles, institutions, and human rights. Singapore: Springer Nature; 2025. p. 179\u201386. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-981-96-2100-2_13.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-96-2100-2_13"},{"key":"1126_CR4","unstructured":"NCSA. Pedestrians: 2021 data. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration; 2023 June. https:\/\/crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov\/Api\/Public\/ViewPublication\/813458.\u00a0Accessed 10 Sept 2024"},{"key":"1126_CR5","unstructured":"National Center for Statistics and Analysis. Bicyclists and other cyclists: 2020 data. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration; 2022 June. Report No.: Report No. DOT HS 813 322. https:\/\/crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov\/Api\/Public\/ViewPublication\/813322.\u00a0Accessed 10 Sept 2024"},{"key":"1126_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph192416479","author":"Y Xu","year":"1990","unstructured":"Xu Y, Chen M, Yang R, Wumaierjiang M, Huang S, Xu Y. Global, regional, and national burden of road injuries from 1990 to 2019. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 1990. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph192416479.","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"1126_CR7","unstructured":"Caltrans. Toward an active California: state bicycle + pedestrian plan. 2017. https:\/\/dot.ca.gov\/-\/media\/dot-media\/programs\/transportation-planning\/documents\/f0020350-activeca-final-plan-2017-05-18-a11y.pdf.\u00a0Accessed 10 Sept 2024"},{"key":"1126_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000001268","volume":"32","author":"MD Garber","year":"2021","unstructured":"Garber MD, McCullough LE, Mooney SJ, Kramer MR, Watkins KE, Lobelo RLF, et al. At-risk-measure sampling in case\u2013control studies with aggregated data. Epidemiology. 2021;32:101. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/EDE.0000000000001268.","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"1126_CR9","unstructured":"Turner S, Sener I, Martin M, Das S, Shipp E, Hampshire R, et al. Synthesis of methods for estimating pedestrian and bicyclist exposure to risk at areawide levels and on specific transportation facilities - Safety | Federal Highway Administration. U.S. Department of Transportation; 2017 Jan p. 91. Report No.: FHWA-SA-17\u2013041. https:\/\/safety.fhwa.dot.gov\/ped_bike\/tools_solve\/fhwasa17041\/index.cfm. Accessed 12 Feb 2023"},{"key":"1126_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2021.102388","volume":"127","author":"C Ferster","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ferster C, Nelson T, Laberee K, Winters M. Mapping bicycling exposure and safety risk using Strava Metro. Appl Geogr. 2021;127: 102388. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.apgeog.2021.102388.","journal-title":"Appl Geogr"},{"key":"1126_CR11","unstructured":"Handy S, Salon D. Estimates of miles walked and biked in California by Census Tract | National Center for Sustainable Transportation. Caltrans; 2013. https:\/\/ncst.ucdavis.edu\/project\/estimates-miles-walked-and-biked-california-census-tract. Accessed 27 Jan 2023"},{"key":"1126_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Barrington-Leigh C, Millard-Ball A. The world\u2019s user-generated road map is more than 80% complete. PLOS ONE. Public Library of Science; 2017;12:e0180698. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0180698","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0180698"},{"key":"1126_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Haklay M. How good is volunteered geographical information? A comparative study of OpenStreetMap and Ordnance Survey Datasets. Environ Plann B Plann Des. SAGE Publications Ltd STM; 2010;37:682\u2013703. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1068\/b35097","DOI":"10.1068\/b35097"},{"key":"1126_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a114001","volume":"121","author":"EL Frome","year":"1985","unstructured":"Frome EL, Checkoway H. Use of Poisson regression models in estimating incidence rates and ratios. Am J Epidemiol. 1985;121:309\u201323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a114001.","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"1126_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.2307\/2531094","volume":"39","author":"EL Frome","year":"1983","unstructured":"Frome EL, International Biometric Society. The analysis of rates using Poisson regression models. Biometrics. 1983;39:665\u201374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/2531094.","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"1126_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2022.103298","volume":"107","author":"RL Sanders","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sanders RL, Schneider RJ. An exploration of pedestrian fatalities by race in the United States. Transp Res Part D Transp Environ. 2022;107: 103298. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.trd.2022.103298.","journal-title":"Transp Res Part D Transp Environ"},{"key":"1126_CR17","unstructured":"Knoblauch R, Seifert RF, Murphy NB. The pedestrian and bicyclist highway safety problem as it relates to the Hispanic population in the United States. Washington, D.C.: Federal Highway Administration; 2004 p. 59. https:\/\/highways.dot.gov\/safety\/pedestrian-bicyclist\/pedestrian-and-bicyclist-highway-safety-problem-it-relates-hispanic-0. Accessed 10 Sept 2024"},{"key":"1126_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaturvedi A, Prabhakaran D. Air pollution and cardiovascular diseases in India\u2014a 360\u00b0 view. Safe and Sustainable Mobility by Design. 2025.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-96-2100-2_8"},{"key":"1126_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Richter ED, Berman T, Friedman L, Ben-David G. Speed, road injury, and public health. Annual Review of Public Health. Annual Reviews; 2006;27:125\u201352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.publhealth.27.021405.102225","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.publhealth.27.021405.102225"},{"key":"1126_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1080\/01441647.2016.1239660","volume":"37","author":"RJ Lee","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lee RJ, Sener IN, Jones SN. Understanding the role of equity in active transportation planning in the United States. Transport Reviews Routledge. 2017;37:211\u201326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/01441647.2016.1239660.","journal-title":"Transport Reviews Routledge"},{"key":"1126_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sadeghvaziri E, Javid R, Jeihani M. Active transportation for underrepresented populations in the United States: a systematic review of literature. Transportation Research Record. SAGE Publications Inc; 2024;2678:403\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/03611981231197659","DOI":"10.1177\/03611981231197659"},{"key":"1126_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Miah MM, Hyun KK, Mattingly SP. A review of bike volume prediction studies. Transportation Letters Taylor & Francis. 2024;1\u201328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/19427867.2024.2310831.","DOI":"10.1080\/19427867.2024.2310831"},{"key":"1126_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.5198\/jtlu.2024.2315","volume":"17","author":"T Tao","year":"2024","unstructured":"Tao T, Lindsey G, Stern R, Levin M. The use of crowdsourced mobile data in estimating pedestrian and bicycle traffic: a systematic review. J Transp Land Use. 2024;17:41\u201365. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5198\/jtlu.2024.2315.","journal-title":"J Transp Land Use"},{"key":"1126_CR24","unstructured":"StreetLight. StreetLight Data Offers Complete, Stand-alone dashboard of bicycle and pedestrian transportation metrics. StreetLight Data. 2019 [cited 2023 Jan 24]. https:\/\/www.streetlightdata.com\/bicycle-and-pedestrian-metrics-alternative-to-iot-bike-counters\/. Accessed 24 Jan 2023"},{"key":"1126_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trip.2020.100095","volume":"4","author":"K Lee","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lee K, Sener IN. Emerging data for pedestrian and bicycle monitoring: sources and applications. Transp Res Interdiscip Perspect. 2020;4: 100095. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.trip.2020.100095.","journal-title":"Transp Res Interdiscip Perspect"}],"container-title":["Journal of Urban Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11524-026-01126-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11524-026-01126-7","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11524-026-01126-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T21:57:19Z","timestamp":1792101439000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11524-026-01126-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"references-count":25,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["1126"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11524-026-01126-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["1099-3460","1468-2869"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1099-3460","type":"print"},{"value":"1468-2869","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"assertion":[{"value":"21 October 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"7 July 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 August 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}}]}}