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However, supervised methods lack flexibility for new or unseen tools and require extensive annotated data. This work introduces a training-free pipeline for accurate multi-view 6D pose estimation of unseen surgical instruments, which only requires a textured CAD model as prior knowledge.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>\n                      <jats:bold>Methods<\/jats:bold>\n                    <\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Our pipeline consists of two main stages. First, for detection, we generate object mask proposals in each view and score their similarity to rendered templates using a pre-trained feature extractor. Detections are matched across views, triangulated into 3D instance candidates , and filtered using multi-view geometric consistency. Second, for pose estimation, a set of pose hypotheses is iteratively refined and scored using feature-metric scores with cross-view attention. The best hypothesis undergoes a final refinement using a novel multi-view, occlusion-aware contour registration, which minimizes reprojection errors of unoccluded contour points.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>\n                      <jats:bold>Results<\/jats:bold>\n                    <\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The proposed method was rigorously evaluated on real-world surgical data from the MVPSP dataset. The method achieves millimeter accurate pose estimates that are on par with supervised methods under controlled conditions, while maintaining full generalization to unseen instruments . These results demonstrate the feasibility of training-free, marker-less detection and tracking in surgical scenes, and highlight the unique challenges in surgical environments.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>\n                      <jats:bold>Conclusion<\/jats:bold>\n                    <\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We present a novel and flexible pipeline that effectively combines state-of-the-art foundational models, multi-view geometry, and contour-based refinement for high-accuracy 6D pose estimation of surgical instruments without any task-specific training. This approach enables robust instrument tracking and scene understanding in dynamic clinical environments.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11548-026-03598-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T04:08:07Z","timestamp":1774498087000},"page":"909-917","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Training-free detection and 6D pose estimation of unseen surgical instruments"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0670-0828","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonas","family":"Hein","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lilian","family":"Calvet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthias","family":"Seibold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Siyu","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marc","family":"Pollefeys","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Philipp","family":"F\u00fcrnstahl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"3598_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Moln\u00e1r C, Nagy TD, Elek RN, Haidegger T (2020) Visual servoing-based camera control for the da vinci surgical system. 2020 IEEE 18th International symposium on intelligent systems and informatics (SISY). pp 107\u2013112. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/SISY50555.2020.9217086","DOI":"10.1109\/SISY50555.2020.9217086"},{"key":"3598_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.media.2025.103674","volume":"105","author":"H Xu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Xu H, Weld A, Xu C, Roddan A, Cartucho J, Karaoglu MA, Ladikos A, Li Y, Li Y, Shen D, Lee G, Park S, Shin J, Fothergill L, Jones D, Valdastri P, Sarikaya D, Giannarou S (2025) Surgripe challenge: benchmark of surgical robot instrument pose estimation. 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