{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T20:57:32Z","timestamp":1781643452239,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]],"date-time":"2026-03-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774051200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]],"date-time":"2026-03-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774051200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000057","name":"National Institute of General Medical Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P20GM109025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20GM109025"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000057","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000057","name":"National Institute of General Medical Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P20GM109025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20GM109025"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000057","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000057","name":"National Institute of General Medical Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P20GM109025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20GM109025"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000057","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000057","name":"National Institute of General Medical Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P20GM109025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20GM109025"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000057","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Women Alzheimer Movement"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Imaging and Behavior"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Resilience in aging\u2014the capacity to maintain cognition and function despite neuropathology\u2014has been described through cognitive reserve, brain reserve, and maintenance. The\n                      <jats:italic>dynamic Neurocognitive Adaptation<\/jats:italic>\n                      (dNA) framework expands these constructs by defining resilience as a lifelong process of adaptive engagement across cognitive, physical, creative, and social domains that shape neural integrity and cognitive outcomes over time.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Fifty-eight older adults (39 cognitively normal, 19 with mild cognitive impairment) completed neuropsychological testing, amyloid assessment, and structural MRI. The dNA scale quantified engagement across seven life-course time windows. Hierarchical multiple regressions examined domain- and time-specific associations between dNA scores and cortical thickness or regional volumes (FreeSurfer 7.3.2), controlling for age, sex, education, and diagnosis. Exploratory mediation and moderation models tested indirect and interaction effects of demographic and diagnostic factors.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Childhood (Time Window 1) emerged as a sensitive period: higher cognitive engagement is associated with stronger semantic fluency, and physical engagement is linked to a better episodic learning. Creative and physical engagement during childhood related to larger anterior and posterior cingulate and temporal-pole volumes. In adulthood and midlife (Time Windows 3\u20135), greater engagement was associated with thicker right lateral orbitofrontal cortex and larger lingual volumes. No mediation or moderation by sex, education, or diagnosis was observed.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Childhood and midlife emerge as sensitive periods linking multidomain engagement with later-life brain structure and cognition. The dNA framework provides a multidimensional, time-resolved model of resilience, illustrating how lifelong adaptive behaviors support neural integrity and cognitive health across aging and Alzheimer\u2019s-disease risk.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11682-026-01122-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]],"date-time":"2026-03-21T00:51:53Z","timestamp":1774054313000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Dynamic neurocognitive adaptation: childhood and adult-midlife engagement associated with later-life brain structure and cognition in older adults with and without mild cognitive impairment"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Filippo","family":"Cieri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jessica Z. K.","family":"Caldwell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dietmar","family":"Cordes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chad L.","family":"Cross","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"1122_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2024.03.004","volume":"137","author":"S Ai","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ai, S., Chen, H., Zhang, S., & Li, H. (2024). Midlife physical activity predicts later-life gray matter characteristics and resting-state networks. Neurobiology of Aging, 137, 10\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2024.03.004","journal-title":"Neurobiology of Aging"},{"key":"1122_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2021.08.004","volume":"72","author":"AR Aron","year":"2022","unstructured":"Aron, A. R. (2022). Adaptive control and the aging brain. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 72, 30\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.conb.2021.08.004","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Neurobiology"},{"issue":"1","key":"1122_CR4","first-page":"7","volume":"10","author":"H Atmanspacher","year":"2012","unstructured":"Atmanspacher, H. (2012). Dual-aspect monism \u00e0 la Pauli and Jung. Mind and Matter, 10(1), 7\u201325.","journal-title":"Mind and Matter"},{"issue":"5","key":"1122_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1424","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9051424","volume":"9","author":"S Bae","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bae, S., Lee, S., Harada, K., Makino, K., Chiba, I., Katayama, O., Shinkai, Y., Park, H., & Shimada, H. (2020). Engagement in lifestyle activities is associated with increased Alzheimer\u2019s disease\u2013associated cortical thickness and cognitive performance in older adults. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(5), 1424. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm9051424","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Medicine"},{"issue":"11","key":"1122_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1048","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3182872835","volume":"80","author":"A Bakkour","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bakkour, A., Morris, J. C., & Dickerson, B. C. (2013). The cortical signature of prodromal AD: Regional thinning predicts mild AD dementia. Neurology, 80(11), 1048\u20131056. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3182872835","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"issue":"2","key":"1122_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2015.10.004","volume":"20","author":"RE Beaty","year":"2016","unstructured":"Beaty, R. E., Benedek, M., Silvia, P. J., & Schacter, D. L. (2016). Creative cognition and brain network dynamics. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(2), 87\u201395. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tics.2015.10.004","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"1122_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2024.105420","volume":"157","author":"JM Bell","year":"2024","unstructured":"Bell, J. M., Sabat\u00e9s, R., & Anders, J. (2024). Early life experiences and the development of cognitive reserve: A systematic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 157, 105420. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2024.105420","journal-title":"Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews"},{"key":"1122_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(68)90038-9","volume":"6","author":"AL Benton","year":"1968","unstructured":"Benton, A. L. (1968). Differential behavioral effects in frontal lobe disease. Neuropsychologia, 6, 53\u201360.","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"issue":"12","key":"1122_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2767","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhp055","volume":"19","author":"JR Binder","year":"2009","unstructured":"Binder, J. R., Desai, R. H., Graves, W. W., & Conant, L. L. (2009). Where is the semantic system? A critical review and meta-analysis of 120 functional neuroimaging studies. Cerebral Cortex, 19(12), 2767\u20132796. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cercor\/bhp055","journal-title":"Cerebral Cortex"},{"key":"1122_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Boa Sorte Silva N. C., Barha C. K., Erickson K. I., Kramer A. F., Liu-Ambrose T. (2024). Physical exercise, cognition, and brain health in aging. Trends Neurosci, 47(6):402\u2013417. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tins.2024.04.004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2024.04.004"},{"key":"1122_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2019.00857","volume":"13","author":"N Cera","year":"2019","unstructured":"Cera, N., Esposito, R., Cieri, F., & Tartaro, A. (2019). Altered cingulate cortex functional connectivity in normal aging and mild cognitive impairment. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 13, 857. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnins.2019.00857","journal-title":"Frontiers in Neuroscience"},{"issue":"2","key":"1122_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70103","DOI":"10.1002\/trc2.70103","volume":"11","author":"F Cieri","year":"2025","unstructured":"Cieri, F., Cross, C. L., Francesco, G. D., & Caldwell, J. Z. K. (2025a). Dynamic neurocognitive adaptation: A follow-up exposome investigation in aging. Alzheimers Dement (N Y), 11(2), e70103. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/trc2.70103PMID: 40390822; PMCID: PMC12086992.","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement (N Y)"},{"issue":"1","key":"1122_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70049","DOI":"10.1002\/trc2.70049","volume":"11","author":"F Cieri","year":"2025","unstructured":"Cieri, F., Di Francesco, G., Cross, C. L., Bender, A., & Caldwell, J. Z. K. (2025b). Dynamic neurocognitive adaptation in aging: Development and validation of a new scale. Alzheimers Dement (N Y), 11(1), e70049. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/trc2.70049PMID: 39839075; PMCID: PMC11746070.","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement (N Y)"},{"key":"1122_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"652575","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2021.652575","volume":"13","author":"T d\u2019Arbeloff","year":"2021","unstructured":"d\u2019Arbeloff, T., Elliott, M. L., & Caspi, A. (2021). Fitness and midlife brain structure: Associations with cortical thickness and white matter integrity. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 13, 652575. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnagi.2021.652575","journal-title":"Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience"},{"key":"1122_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darwin, C. (1859\/2009). On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.5962\/bhl.title.68064"},{"key":"1122_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2022.104663","volume":"137","author":"SR de Rooij","year":"2022","unstructured":"de Rooij, S. R., et al. (2022). Early-life determinants of cognitive reserve: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 137, 104663. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2022.104663","journal-title":"Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews"},{"issue":"3","key":"1122_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2006.01.021","volume":"31","author":"RS Desikan","year":"2006","unstructured":"Desikan, R. S., S\u00e9gonne, F., Fischl, B., Dale, B. M., Stevens, A. A., Borowski, D. D., & Killiany, R. J. (2006). An automated labeling system for subdividing the human cerebral cortex on magnetic resonance images into gyral based regions of interest. Neuroimage, 31(3), 968\u2013980.","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"issue":"3","key":"1122_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhn113","volume":"19","author":"BC Dickerson","year":"2009","unstructured":"Dickerson, B. C., Bakkour, A., Salat, D. H., Feczko, E., Pacheco, J., Greve, D. N., Grodstein, F., Wright, C. I., Blacker, D., Rosas, H. D., Sperling, R. A., Atri, A., Growdon, J. H., Hyman, B. T., Morris, J. C., Fischl, B., & Buckner, R. L. (2009). The cortical signature of Alzheimer\u2019s disease: regionally specific cortical thinning relates to symptom severity in very mild to mild AD dementia and is detectable in asymptomatic amyloid-positive individuals. Cerebral Cortex, 19(3), 497\u2013510. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cercor\/bhn113.","journal-title":"Cerebral Cortex"},{"issue":"5","key":"1122_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1076\/jcen.25.5.643.14583","volume":"25","author":"MG Dik","year":"2003","unstructured":"Dik, M. G., Deeg, D. J. H., Visser, M., & Jonker, C. (2003). Early life physical activity and cognition at old age. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(5), 643\u2013653. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1076\/jcen.25.5.643.14583","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology"},{"issue":"4","key":"1122_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2024.02.001","volume":"47","author":"S Dohm-Hansen","year":"2024","unstructured":"Dohm-Hansen, S., English, J. A., Lavelle, A., Fitzsimons, C. P., Lucassen, P. J., & Nolan, Y. M. (2024). The \u2018middle-aging\u2019 brain. Trends In Neurosciences, 47(4), 259\u2013272. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tins.2024.02.001","journal-title":"Trends In Neurosciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"1122_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100077","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ynirp.2022.100077","volume":"2","author":"MA Gogniat","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gogniat, M. A., Robinson, T. L., et al. (2022). Physical activity moderates the association between age and resting-state functional connectivity in older adults. NeuroImage: Reports, 2(1), 100077. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ynirp.2022.100077","journal-title":"NeuroImage: Reports"},{"issue":"Supplement_1","key":"1122_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8821159","DOI":"10.1093\/geroni\/igab046.3468","volume":"5","author":"EA Greenfield","year":"2021","unstructured":"Greenfield, E. A., Klinedinst, B. S., & Quinn, J. E. (2021). Enriching early-life activities support cognitive reserve: A life course perspective. Innovation in Aging, 5(Supplement_1), 8821159. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/geroni\/igab046.3468","journal-title":"Innovation in Aging"},{"key":"1122_CR30","unstructured":"Hebb, D. O. (1949\/2002). The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Mahwah, New Jersey."},{"issue":"9","key":"1122_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2004.02.001","volume":"42","author":"JD Henry","year":"2004","unstructured":"Henry, J. D., Crawford, J. R., & Phillips, L. H. (2004). Verbal fluency performance in dementia of the Alzheimer\u2019s type: A meta-analysis. Neuropsychologia, 42(9), 1212\u20131222.","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"1122_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00219","volume":"11","author":"A Hervais-Adelman","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hervais-Adelman, A., et al. (2017a). Creativity and brain plasticity: Structural changes following training in adults. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 219. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00219","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"issue":"1","key":"1122_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.13311","volume":"1397","author":"A Hervais-Adelman","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hervais-Adelman, A., Moser-Mercer, B., & Golestani, N. (2017b). Brain plasticity for auditory and language abilities: A review of structural and functional changes with training. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1397(1), 199\u2013219. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/nyas.13311","journal-title":"Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"1122_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2017.01.008","volume":"98","author":"A Hervais-Adelman","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hervais-Adelman, A., Moser-Mercer, B., Murray, M. M., & Golestani, N. (2017c). Cortical thickness increases after simultaneous interpretation training. Neuropsychologia, 98, 212\u2013219. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2017.01.008","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"issue":"10","key":"1122_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3019","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5118-08.2009","volume":"29","author":"KL Hyde","year":"2009","unstructured":"Hyde, K. L., Lerch, J., Norton, A., Forgeard, M., Winner, E., Evans, A. C., & Schlaug, G. (2009). Musical training shapes structural brain development. Journal of Neuroscience, 29(10), 3019\u20133025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5118-08.2009","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"1122_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.05.059","volume":"199","author":"RL Jackson","year":"2019","unstructured":"Jackson, R. L., Hoffman, P., Pobric, G., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2019). Exploring distinct default mode and semantic networks using a systematic ICA approach. Neuroimage, 199, 3\u201317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.05.059","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"1122_CR40","unstructured":"Jung, C. G., & Pauli, W. (1955\/2014). The interpretation of nature and the psyche. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Pres"},{"issue":"9","key":"1122_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2257","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22017","volume":"34","author":"RE Jung","year":"2013","unstructured":"Jung, R. E., Segall, J. M., Bockholt, H. J., Flores, R. A., Smith, S. M., Chavez, R. S., & Haier, R. J. (2013). Neuroanatomy of creativity. Human Brain Mapping, 34(9), 2257\u20132271. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/hbm.22017","journal-title":"Human Brain Mapping"},{"key":"1122_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.49.1.43","volume":"49","author":"B Kolb","year":"1998","unstructured":"Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (1998). Brain plasticity and behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 43\u201364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.psych.49.1.43","journal-title":"Annual Review of Psychology"},{"key":"1122_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1256844","DOI":"10.3389\/fragi.2023.1256844","volume":"4","author":"S Lissek","year":"2023","unstructured":"Lissek, S. (2023). Toward a conceptual framework of adaptation and maladaptation in aging. Frontiers in Aging, 4, 1256844. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fragi.2023.1256844","journal-title":"Frontiers in Aging"},{"key":"1122_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2024.01.003","volume":"135","author":"B Litkouhi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Litkouhi, B., et al. (2024). Life-course determinants of cognitive reserve: A systematic review. Neurobiology of Aging, 135, 75\u201389. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2024.01.003","journal-title":"Neurobiology of Aging"},{"key":"1122_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2202.01516","author":"X Liu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Liu, X., Li, Y., Wei, H., & Jiang, T. (2022). Modeling network resilience and adaptation in aging brain connectomes. arXiv preprint. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2202.01516. arXiv:2202.01516.","journal-title":"arXiv preprint"},{"issue":"10452","key":"1122_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01296-0","volume":"404","author":"G Livingston","year":"2024","unstructured":"Livingston, G., Huntley, J., Liu, K. Y., Costafreda, S. G., Selb\u00e6k, G., Alladi, S., Ames, D., Banerjee, S., Burns, A., Brayne, C., Fox, N. C., Ferri, C. P., Gitlin, L. N., Howard, R., Kales, H. C., Kivim\u00e4ki, M., Larson, E. B., Nakasujja, N., Rockwood, K., & Mukadam, N. (2024). Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2024 report of the Lancet standing Commission. The Lancet, 404(10452), 572\u2013628. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01296-0","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"key":"1122_CR52","unstructured":"Mayr, E. (1982). The growth of biological thought: Diversity, evolution, and inheritance. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press"},{"issue":"2","key":"1122_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aws336","volume":"136","author":"MM Mesulam","year":"2013","unstructured":"Mesulam, M. M., Rogalski, E., Wieneke, C., Hurley, R. S., Geula, C., Bigio, E. H., Thompson, C. K., & Weintraub, S. (2013). Words and objects at the tip of the left temporal lobe in primary progressive aphasia. Brain, 136(2), 601\u2013618. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/brain\/aws336","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"1122_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2021.01.024","volume":"137","author":"MM Mesulam","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mesulam, M. M., Thompson, C. K., Weintraub, S., & Rogalski, E. (2021). Modularity and granularity across the language network\u2014A PPA perspective. Cortex; A Journal Devoted To The Study Of The Nervous System And Behavior, 137, 66\u201389. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cortex.2021.01.024","journal-title":"Cortex; A Journal Devoted To The Study Of The Nervous System And Behavior"},{"issue":"1","key":"1122_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.59.103006.093656","volume":"60","author":"DC Park","year":"2009","unstructured":"Park, D. C., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. (2009). The adaptive brain: Aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 173\u2013196. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.psych.59.103006.093656","journal-title":"Annual Review of Psychology"},{"key":"1122_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144216","volume":"28","author":"A Pascual-Leone","year":"2005","unstructured":"Pascual-Leone, A., Amedi, A., Fregni, F., & Merabet, L. B. (2005). The plastic human brain cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 28, 377\u2013401. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144216","journal-title":"Annual Review of Neuroscience"},{"issue":"3","key":"1122_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2796.2004.01388.x","volume":"256","author":"RC Petersen","year":"2004","unstructured":"Petersen, R. C. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity. Journal of Internal Medicine, 256(3), 183\u2013194.","journal-title":"Journal of Internal Medicine"},{"issue":"1","key":"1122_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12319","DOI":"10.1002\/dad2.12319","volume":"14","author":"JJ Pruzin","year":"2022","unstructured":"Pruzin, J. J., et al. (2022). Physical activity is associated with increased resting-state functional connectivity in older adults at risk for Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Alzheimer\u2019s & Dementia: Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring, 14(1), e12319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/dad2.12319","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s & Dementia: Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring"},{"issue":"2","key":"1122_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glad295","volume":"79","author":"CA Raji","year":"2024","unstructured":"Raji, C. A., et al. (2024a). Exercise and brain structure in late life: Evidence from large-sample MRI. Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences, 79(2), 235\u2013244. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/gerona\/glad295","journal-title":"Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"1122_CR69","first-page":"259","volume":"20","author":"CA Raji","year":"2024","unstructured":"Raji, C. A., et al. (2024b). Exercise-related physical activity relates to brain volume in older adults: Evidence from 10,125 MRI scans. Alzheimer\u2019s & Dementia, 20(1), 259\u2013270.","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s & Dementia"},{"key":"1122_CR71","unstructured":". Rey, A. (1964). L\u2019examen clinique en psychologie. Paris, France: Presses Universitaires de France."},{"issue":"1","key":"1122_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-79083-x","volume":"15","author":"R Roberts","year":"2025","unstructured":"Roberts, R., Zhang, J., Xu, C., & Bennett, D. A. (2025). Cognitively stimulating activities across childhood and late-life cognitive outcomes: Evidence from a large population study. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 1234. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-024-79083-x","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"1122_CR73","unstructured":".Russell, B. (1921\/2001). The analysis of mind. London, UK: Routledge."},{"key":"1122_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.57.102904.190024","volume":"60","author":"DP Salmon","year":"2009","unstructured":"Salmon, D. P., & Bondi, M. W. (2009). Neuropsychological assessment of dementia. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 257\u2013282.","journal-title":"Annual Review of Psychology"},{"key":"1122_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2016.05.017","volume":"11","author":"CG Schwarz","year":"2016","unstructured":"Schwarz, C. G., Gunter, J. L., Wiste, H. J., Przybelski, S. A., Weigand, S. D., Ward, C. P., Senjem, M. L., Vemuri, P., Murray, M. E., Dickson, D. W., Parisi, J. E., Kantarci, K., Weiner, M. W., Petersen, R. C., & Jack, C. R. Jr (2016). Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. A large-scale comparison of cortical thickness and volume methods for measuring Alzheimer\u2019s disease severity. Neuroimage Clin, 11, 802\u2013812. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.nicl.2016.05.017PMID: 28050342; PMCID: PMC5187496.","journal-title":"Neuroimage Clin"},{"key":"1122_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solms, M. (2021). The hidden spring: A journey to the source of consciousness. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company","DOI":"10.53765\/20512201.28.11.153"},{"key":"1122_CR79","unstructured":".Spinoza, B. (1985). Ethics. In E. Curley (Ed. & Trans.), The collected works of Spinoza (Vol. 1). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1677)"},{"key":"1122_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Stern, Y., Arenaza-Urquijo, E. M., Bartr\u00e9s-Faz, D., Belleville, S., Cantillon, M., Chetelat, G., Ewers, M., Franzmeier, N., Kempermann, G., Kremen, W. S., Okonkwo, O., Scarmeas, N., Soldan, A., Udeh-Momoh, C., Valenzuela, M., Vemuri, P., Vuoksimaa, E., & Reserve, Resilience and Protective Factors PIA Empirical Definitions and Conceptual Frameworks Workgroup. (2020). Whitepaper: Defining and investigating cognitive reserve, brain reserve, and brain maintenance. Alzheimer\u2019s & Dementia, 19(2), 354\u2013365. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/alz.12639","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.12639"},{"key":"1122_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Stern, Y., Albert, M., Barnes, C. A., Cabeza, R., Pascual-Leone, A., & Rapp, P. R. (2023). A framework for concepts of reserve and resilience in aging. Neurobiology of Aging, 124, 100\u2013103. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2022.10.015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2022.10.015"},{"issue":"10","key":"1122_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3375","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.23247","volume":"37","author":"J Sun","year":"2016","unstructured":"Sun, J., Chen, Q., Zhang, Q., Li, Y., Li, H., Wei, D., He, L., & Qiu, J. (2016). Training your brain to be more creative: Brain functional and structural changes induced by divergent thinking training. Human Brain Mapping, 37(10), 3375\u20133387. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/hbm.23247","journal-title":"Human Brain Mapping"},{"key":"1122_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Suo, C., Singh, M. F., Gates, N., Wen, W., Sachdev, P., Brodaty, H., Saigal, N., Wilson, G. C., Meiklejohn, J., Singh, N., Baune, B. T., Baker, M. K., Foroughi, N., Wang, Y., Mavros, Y., Heo, S., Kay-Lambkin, F., & Valenzuela, M. J. (2016). Therapeutically relevant structural and functional mechanisms triggered by physical and cognitive exercise. Molecular Psychiatry, 21(11), 1633\u20131642. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/mp.2016.41. Nature.","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2016.41"},{"key":"1122_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2020.117512","volume":"225","author":"T Tarumi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tarumi, T., Tomoto, T., Repshas, J., Wang, C., Hynan, L. S., Cullum, C. M., Zhu, D. C., & Zhang, R. (2021). Midlife aerobic exercise and brain structural integrity: Associations with age and cardiorespiratory fitness. Neuroimage, 225, 117512. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2020.117512PubMed.","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"issue":"8","key":"1122_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-05-0456","volume":"14","author":"CP Wild","year":"2005","unstructured":"Wild, C. P. (2005). Complementing the genome with an exposome: the out- standing challenge of environmental exposure measurement in molecular epidemiology. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 14(8), 1847\u20131850. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-05-0456","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention"},{"issue":"5","key":"1122_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1352","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awq075","volume":"133","author":"J Zhou","year":"2010","unstructured":"Zhou, J., Greicius, M. D., Gennatas, E. D., Growdon, M. E., Jang, J. Y., Rabinovici, G. D., Kramer, J. H., Weiner, M., Miller, B. L., & Seeley, W. W. (2010). Divergent network connectivity changes in behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Brain, 133(5), 1352\u20131367. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/brain\/awq075","journal-title":"Brain"}],"container-title":["Brain Imaging and Behavior"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11682-026-01122-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11682-026-01122-0","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11682-026-01122-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T20:34:50Z","timestamp":1781642090000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11682-026-01122-0"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["1122"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11682-026-01122-0","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-7971358\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1931-7565"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1931-7565","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]]},"assertion":[{"value":"28 October 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"26 February 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 March 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This study was approved by the Cleveland Clinic Institutional Review Board (Study #15\u2013888). All participants provided written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"NA.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"56"}}