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This study aimed to evaluate the in vitro and ex vivo antileishmanial effects of\n                      <jats:italic>Artemisia vulgaris<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Berberis vulgaris<\/jats:italic>\n                      extracts against\n                      <jats:italic>L. major<\/jats:italic>\n                      , as well as their in vitro antitrichomonal activity against\n                      <jats:italic>T. vaginalis<\/jats:italic>\n                      trophozoites.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Ethanolic extracts of\n                      <jats:italic>A. vulgaris<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>B. vulgaris<\/jats:italic>\n                      were tested against\n                      <jats:italic>L. major<\/jats:italic>\n                      promastigotes, intracellular amastigotes, and\n                      <jats:italic>T. vaginalis<\/jats:italic>\n                      trophozoites. Parasite viability was determined by CellTiter-Glo\n                      <jats:sup>\u00ae<\/jats:sup>\n                      , microscopy, and rescue\u2013transformation assays, and selectivity indices (SI) were calculated. Amphotericin B and metronidazole served as reference drugs.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Both extracts exhibited low cytotoxicity in THP-1 macrophages (\n                      <jats:italic>A. vulgaris<\/jats:italic>\n                      CC\u2085\u2080\u2009=\u2009465.2\u00a0\u00b5g\/mL;\n                      <jats:italic>B. vulgaris<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009357.7\u00a0\u00b5g\/mL). Against\n                      <jats:italic>L. major<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic>B. vulgaris<\/jats:italic>\n                      showed greater potency (IC\u2085\u2080\u2009=\u200976.8\u00a0\u00b5g\/mL; SI\u2009=\u20094.7 for amastigotes) than\n                      <jats:italic>A. vulgaris<\/jats:italic>\n                      (IC\u2085\u2080\u2009=\u2009179.7\u00a0\u00b5g\/mL; SI\u2009=\u20092.6). Both extracts reduced intracellular parasite burden in a dose-dependent manner, achieving complete clearance at non-cytotoxic concentrations (\u2265\u2009300\u00a0\u00b5g\/mL). In\n                      <jats:italic>T. vaginalis<\/jats:italic>\n                      , the extracts induced concentration-dependent inhibition, with IC\u2085\u2080 values of 68.9\u00a0\u00b5g\/mL (\n                      <jats:italic>B. vulgaris<\/jats:italic>\n                      , SI\u2009=\u20095.2) and 104.4\u00a0\u00b5g\/mL (\n                      <jats:italic>A. vulgaris<\/jats:italic>\n                      , SI\u2009=\u20094.5).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Both extracts exhibited selective, dose-dependent antiprotozoal activity, with\n                      <jats:italic>B. vulgaris<\/jats:italic>\n                      showing superior efficacy, particularly against intracellular\n                      <jats:italic>L. major<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>T. vaginalis<\/jats:italic>\n                      . These results highlight their potential as natural antiprotozoal sources, warranting further studies on active constituents, mechanisms, and in vivo efficacy.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11686-026-01224-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]],"date-time":"2026-02-16T12:16:43Z","timestamp":1771244203000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Antiprotozoal Activity of Artemisia vulgaris and Berberis vulgaris Against Leishmania major and Trichomonas vaginalis"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"71","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3397-8411","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"T\u00fclay","family":"Aksoy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9680-4294","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nogay","family":"Girginkarde\u015fler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4801-1855","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u0130brahim C\u00fcneyt","family":"Balc\u0131o\u011flu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5736-7319","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali Ahmet","family":"Kilimcio\u011flu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"1224_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-7-342","author":"I \u00d6stan","year":"2007","unstructured":"\u00d6stan I, Kilimcio\u01e7lu AA, Girginkarde\u015fler N, \u00d6zyurt BC, Limoncu ME, Ok \u00dcZ (2007) Health inequities: lower socio-economic conditions and higher incidences of intestinal parasites. 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