{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T17:08:33Z","timestamp":1790615313226,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":22,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787875200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787875200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Intern Emerg Med"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Long COVID imposes a substantial public health burden following the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, yet the contribution of electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) use, alone or alongside cigarette smoking, remains inadequately characterized in population-representative data. We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of 9274 adults aged 16\u00a0years and older from the pooled 2023\u20132024 Scottish Health Survey, a nationally representative household survey. Cigarette smoking and e-cigarette use were classified into seven mutually exclusive categories, and the outcome was survey-defined self-reported Long COVID, based on symptoms persisting for more than four weeks after first having COVID-19. Survey-weighted logistic regression was used to estimate crude and adjusted odds ratios, with adjustment for survey year, age group, sex, area deprivation, ethnicity, alcohol use, and educational attainment. Overall, 7.4% of adults reported Long COVID. Compared with never cigarette\/e-cigarette users, adjusted odds were higher among former cigarette smokers currently using neither product (adjusted odds ratio 1.40, 95% confidence interval 1.12\u20131.76) and among former smokers currently using e-cigarettes exclusively (1.56, 1.09\u20132.24). No statistically detectable associations were observed among former e-cigarette users who had never smoked, current e-cigarette users who had never smoked, exclusive current cigarette smokers, or dual users. The two elevated associations persisted after additional adjustment for asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. The observed pattern may reflect previous cigarette exposure, health-related smoking cessation or switching, reverse causation, and residual selection or confounding; the cross-sectional design does not permit an independent contribution of e-cigarette use to be determined.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11739-026-04512-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T06:20:18Z","timestamp":1787898018000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Cigarette smoking history, e-cigarette use, and Long COVID: a population-based analysis"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2381-0984","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yusuff Adebayo","family":"Adebisi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anas Ali","family":"Alhur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"4512_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-022-00846-2","volume":"21","author":"HE Davis","year":"2023","unstructured":"Davis HE, McCorkell L, Vogel JM, Topol EJ (2023) Long COVID: major findings, mechanisms and recommendations. Nat Rev Microbiol 21(3):133\u2013146","journal-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol"},{"issue":"12","key":"4512_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11122959","volume":"11","author":"C Fern\u00e1ndez-de-Las-Pe\u00f1as","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez-de-Las-Pe\u00f1as C, Raveendran AV, Giordano R, Arendt-Nielsen L (2023) Long COVID or post-COVID-19 condition: past, present and future research directions. Microorganisms 11(12):2959","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"issue":"1","key":"4512_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4249","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-59012-w","volume":"16","author":"LL O\u2019Mahoney","year":"2025","unstructured":"O\u2019Mahoney LL, Routen A, Gillies C, Jenkins SA, Almaqhawi A, Ayoubkhani D, Banerjee A, Brightling C, Calvert M, Cassambai S, Ekezie W, Funnell MP, Welford A, Peace A, Evans RA, Jeffers S, Kingsnorth AP, Pareek M, Seidu S, Wilkinson TJ, Willis A, Shafran R, Stephenson T, Sterne J, Ward H, Ward T, Khunti K (2025) The risk of Long Covid symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled studies. Nat Commun 16(1):4249","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"4512_CR4","unstructured":"Office for National Statistics. Prevalence of ongoing symptoms following coronavirus (COVID-19) infection in the UK: 30 March 2023. Available at: https:\/\/www.ons.gov.uk\/peoplepopulationandcommunity\/healthandsocialcare\/conditionsanddiseases\/bulletins\/prevalenceofongoingsymptomsfollowingcoronaviruscovid19infectionintheuk\/30march2023. Accessed Apr 2026"},{"issue":"1","key":"4512_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-11579-x","volume":"21","author":"R Patanavanich","year":"2021","unstructured":"Patanavanich R, Glantz SA (2021) Smoking is associated with worse outcomes of COVID-19 particularly among younger adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health 21(1):1554","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"4512_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm14010097","volume":"14","author":"AC Trofor","year":"2024","unstructured":"Trofor AC, Robu Popa D, Melinte OE, Trofor L, Vicol C, Grosu-Creang\u0103 IA, Cri\u0219an Dabija RA, Cernomaz AT (2024) Looking at the data on smoking and post-COVID-19 syndrome\u2014a literature review. J Pers Med 14(1):97","journal-title":"J Pers Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"4512_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeph.2025.203142","volume":"73","author":"YA Adebisi","year":"2025","unstructured":"Adebisi YA, Ogunkola IO, Jimoh ND, Alshahrani NZ, Shomuyiwa DO, Alaran AJ, Lucero-Prisno DE 3rd (2025) Tobacco smoking and the risk of Long COVID: a prospective cohort study with mediation analysis. J Epidemiol Popul Health 73(5):203142","journal-title":"J Epidemiol Popul Health"},{"issue":"6","key":"4512_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.1111\/add.15276","volume":"116","author":"D Simons","year":"2021","unstructured":"Simons D, Shahab L, Brown J, Perski O (2021) The association of smoking status with SARS-CoV-2 infection, hospitalization and mortality from COVID-19: a living rapid evidence review with Bayesian meta-analyses (version 7). 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Eur Respir Rev 34(178):240256","journal-title":"Eur Respir Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"4512_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-87354-4","volume":"15","author":"S Rajai Firouzabadi","year":"2025","unstructured":"Rajai Firouzabadi S, Mohammadi I, Alinejadfard M, Shafiee A (2025) E-cigarettes are not associated with post-acute COVID-19 syndrome among US adults. Sci Rep 15(1):2870","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"4512_CR18","unstructured":"Public Health Scotland. Scottish Health Survey (SHeS). Available at: https:\/\/publichealthscotland.scot\/resources-and-tools\/health-intelligence-and-data-management\/national-data-catalogue\/national-datasets\/search-the-datasets\/scottish-health-survey-shes\/. 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The National Academies Press, Washington, DC. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17226\/27768"}],"container-title":["Internal and Emergency Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11739-026-04512-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11739-026-04512-w","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11739-026-04512-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T06:20:19Z","timestamp":1787898019000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11739-026-04512-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]},"references-count":22,"alternative-id":["4512"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11739-026-04512-w","relation":{},"ISSN":["1828-0447","1970-9366"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1828-0447","type":"print"},{"value":"1970-9366","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]},"assertion":[{"value":"20 May 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"23 August 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"28 August 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Yusuff Adebayo Adebisi and Anas Ali Alhur declare that they have no conflict of interest. Yusuff Adebayo Adebisi previously received funding from Knowledge-Action-Change (KAC), which was supported by Global Action to End Smoking (GA), but has no current funding relationship.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Conflict of interest","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This study is a secondary analysis of anonymized data from the Scottish Health Survey, which received ethical approval for the original data collection from the relevant research ethics committees. All participants provided informed consent at the time of data collection. As this study involved analysis of existing de-identified data, no separate ethical approval was required. The study was performed in accordance with the ethical standards as laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethical approval and consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This research did not involve any new data collection from human participants or animals.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Human and animal rights","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}]}}