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This review aims to highlight the more sensitive markers that can stratify PD risk in non-manifesting <jats:italic>GBA1<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>LRRK2<\/jats:italic> variant carriers.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Recent Findings<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Several case\u2013control and a few longitudinal studies evaluated clinical, biochemical, and neuroimaging markers within cohorts of non-manifesting carriers of <jats:italic>GBA1<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>LRRK2<\/jats:italic> variants.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Summary<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Despite similar levels of penetrance of PD in <jats:italic>GBA1<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>LRRK2<\/jats:italic> variant carriers (10\u201330%), these individuals have distinct preclinical profiles. <jats:italic>GBA1<\/jats:italic> variant carriers at higher risk of PD can present with prodromal symptoms suggestive of PD (hyposmia), display increased \u03b1-synuclein levels in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and show dopamine transporter abnormalities. <jats:italic>LRRK2<\/jats:italic> variant carriers at higher risk of PD might show subtle motor abnormalities, but no prodromal symptoms, higher exposure to some environmental factors (non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs), and peripheral inflammatory profile. This information will help clinicians tailor appropriate screening tests and counseling and facilitate researchers in the development of predictive markers, disease-modifying treatments, and selection of healthy individuals who might benefit from preventive interventions.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-023-01259-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,7]],"date-time":"2023-03-07T10:03:27Z","timestamp":1678183407000},"page":"121-130","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Who is at Risk of Parkinson Disease? Refining the Preclinical Phase of GBA1 and LRRK2 Variant Carriers: a Clinical, Biochemical, and Imaging Approach"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Elisa","family":"Menozzi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anthony H. 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Menozzi and A. HV. Schapira report grants from Aligning Science Across Parkinson\u2019s (grant number: ASAP-000420) through the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson\u2019s Research (MJFF), grants from EU Joint Programme\u2014Neurodegenerative Research (JPND) through the MRC grant code MR\/T046007\/1, during the conduct of the study. E. Menozzi is supported by a Royal Free Charity Fellowship. M. Avenali and F. Blandini have nothing to disclose.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of Interest"}},{"value":"This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent"}}]}}