{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T22:52:52Z","timestamp":1791067972836,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790985600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790985600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep"],"DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-026-01512-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T09:39:40Z","timestamp":1791020380000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Neuroinflammation as a Final Common Pathway in Systemic Disease \u2014 How Systemic Disease Becomes Brain Disease"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1611-6951","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alvaro Andres","family":"Gaitan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6329-0805","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Annelise Velasco","family":"de Azevedo Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5749-3000","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Javier","family":"Romero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alfredo","family":"Lopez-Yunez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"1512_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neures.2026.105063","volume":"227","author":"K Matsubara","year":"2026","unstructured":"Matsubara K, Prinz M, Masuda T. Layered neuroimmune interfaces at CNS borders: stress reshapes CNS immunity. Neurosci Res. 2026;227:105063.","journal-title":"Neurosci Res"},{"issue":"4","key":"1512_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15040502","volume":"15","author":"A S\u0103lcudean","year":"2025","unstructured":"S\u0103lcudean A, Bodo CR, Popovici RA, et al. Neuroinflammation \u2013 a crucial factor in the pathophysiology of depression: a comprehensive review. Biomolecules. 2025;15(4):502.","journal-title":"Biomolecules"},{"issue":"1","key":"1512_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-023-02817-7","volume":"20","author":"N Villalba","year":"2023","unstructured":"Villalba N, Ma Y, Gahan SA, et al. Lung infection by Pseudomonas aeruginosa induces neuroinflammation and blood-brain barrier dysfunction in mice. J Neuroinflammation. 2023;20(1):127.","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation"},{"issue":"1","key":"1512_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-024-03261-x","volume":"21","author":"X Huang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Huang X, Wei P, Fang C, et al. Compromised endothelial Wnt\/\u03b2-catenin signaling mediates the blood-brain barrier disruption and leads to neuroinflammation in endotoxemia. J Neuroinflammation. 2024;21(1):265.","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation"},{"issue":"8","key":"1512_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-023-01054-w","volume":"8","author":"P Wang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wang P, Jin L, Zhang M, et al. Blood-brain barrier injury and neuroinflammation induced by SARS-CoV-2 in a lung-brain microphysiological system. Nat Biomed Eng. 2023;8(8):1053\u201368.","journal-title":"Nat Biomed Eng"},{"issue":"9","key":"1512_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2023.06.005","volume":"46","author":"ML Chou","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chou ML, Babamale AO, Walker TL, Cognasse F, Blum D, Burnouf T. Blood-brain crosstalk: the roles of neutrophils, platelets, and neutrophil extracellular traps in neuropathologies. Trends Neurosci. 2023;46(9):764\u201379.","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci"},{"key":"1512_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2023.1130989","volume":"14","author":"S Hassamal","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hassamal S. Chronic stress, neuroinflammation, and depression: an overview of pathophysiological mechanisms and emerging anti-inflammatories. Front Psychiatry. 2023;14:1130989.","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"issue":"19","key":"1512_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms251910535","volume":"25","author":"MC Jurcau","year":"2024","unstructured":"Jurcau MC, Jurcau A, Cristian A, Hogea VO, Diaconu RG, Nunkoo VS. Inflammaging and brain aging. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(19):10535.","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"issue":"10","key":"1512_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1874","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.24588","volume":"72","author":"C Cangalaya","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cangalaya C, Sun W, Stoyanov S, Dunay IR, Dityatev A. Integrity of neural extracellular matrix is required for microglia-mediated synaptic remodeling. Glia. 2024;72(10):1874\u201392.","journal-title":"Glia"},{"issue":"8","key":"1512_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2023.07.012","volume":"56","author":"KM Monroe","year":"2023","unstructured":"Monroe KM, Lewcock JW. Cleaning crew: soluble TREM2 mops up complement. Immunity. 2023;56(8):1701\u20133.","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"issue":"9","key":"1512_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"908","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurol.2024.08.009","volume":"180","author":"S Nitsch","year":"2024","unstructured":"Nitsch S, H\u00f6ftberger R. What we\u2019ve learnt about autoimmune neurological diseases from neuropathology. Rev Neurol (Paris). 2024;180(9):908\u201315.","journal-title":"Rev Neurol (Paris)"},{"key":"1512_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2022.998328","volume":"10","author":"Y Liu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Liu Y, Tu Z, Zhang X, Du K, Xie Z, Lin Z. Pathogenesis and treatment of neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus: a review. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2022;10:998328.","journal-title":"Front Cell Dev Biol"},{"issue":"10","key":"1512_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-018-0227-9","volume":"21","author":"A Louveau","year":"2018","unstructured":"Louveau A, Herz J, Alme MN, et al. CNS lymphatic drainage and neuroinflammation are regulated by meningeal lymphatic vasculature. Nat Neurosci. 2018;21(10):1380\u201391.","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"issue":"37","key":"1512_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7698","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0619-21.2021","volume":"41","author":"LM Hablitz","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hablitz LM, Nedergaard M. The glymphatic system: a novel component of fundamental neurobiology. J Neurosci. 2021;41(37):7698\u2013711.","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"issue":"11","key":"1512_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2377","DOI":"10.4103\/NRR.NRR-D-23-01614","volume":"19","author":"K Zou","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zou K, Deng Q, Zhang H, Huang C. Glymphatic system: a gateway for neuroinflammation. Neural Regen Res. 2024;19(11):2377\u201383.","journal-title":"Neural Regen Res"},{"issue":"2","key":"1512_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1093\/cei\/uxad010","volume":"212","author":"W Nagata","year":"2023","unstructured":"Nagata W, Koizumi A, Nakagawa K, et al. Treatment with lysophosphatidic acid prevents microglial activation and depression-like behaviours in a murine model of neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Immunol. 2023;212(2):81\u201392.","journal-title":"Clin Exp Immunol"},{"issue":"1","key":"1512_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12010091","volume":"12","author":"YL Man","year":"2022","unstructured":"Man YL, Sanna G. Neuropsychiatric manifestations of antiphospholipid syndrome: a narrative review. Brain Sci. 2022;12(1):91.","journal-title":"Brain Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"1512_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2024-263223","volume":"18","author":"GSX Wong","year":"2025","unstructured":"Wong GSX, Ng BW, Jee RC. Bilateral medial medullary and spinal cord infarctions presenting as locked-in syndrome in an adolescent with primary antiphospholipid syndrome. BMJ Case Rep. 2025;18(2):e263223.","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep"},{"issue":"1","key":"1512_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1186\/s12883-024-03617-z","volume":"24","author":"R Zhong","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhong R, Chen X, Liao F, Lin Z, Zhang Z, Chen Y, Cui L. FLAMES overlaying anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis: a case report and literature review. BMC Neurol. 2024;24(1):140.","journal-title":"BMC Neurol"},{"issue":"3","key":"1512_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.3390\/neurolint15030052","volume":"15","author":"AB Reiss","year":"2023","unstructured":"Reiss AB, Greene C, Dayaramani C, Rauchman SH, Stecker MM, De Leon J, et al. Long COVID, the brain, nerves, and cognitive function. Neurol Int. 2023;15(3):821\u201341.","journal-title":"Neurol Int"},{"issue":"5","key":"1512_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12050816","volume":"12","author":"A Leng","year":"2023","unstructured":"Leng A, Shah M, Ahmad SA, et al. Pathogenesis underlying neurological manifestations of long COVID syndrome and potential therapeutics. Cells. 2023;12(5):816.","journal-title":"Cells"},{"issue":"1","key":"1512_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-024-10142-w","volume":"19","author":"IHR de Paiva","year":"2024","unstructured":"de Paiva IHR, da Silva RS, Mendon\u00e7a IP, de Souza JRB, Peixoto CA. Semaglutide attenuates anxious and depressive-like behaviors and reverses the cognitive impairment in a type 2 diabetes mellitus mouse model via the microbiota-gut-brain axis. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2024;19(1):36.","journal-title":"J Neuroimmune Pharmacol"},{"key":"1512_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1729708","volume":"16","author":"R Qin","year":"2025","unstructured":"Qin R, Li C, Yuan X, Chen Y. Microbiome-targeted Alzheimer\u2019s interventions via gut-brain axis. Front Microbiol. 2025;16:1729708.","journal-title":"Front Microbiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"1512_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.52254","volume":"12","author":"NK Paramasivan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Paramasivan NK, Masoud M, Karsten C, et al. Phenotypic and oncological insights in ANNA1 autoimmunity: age stratification and biomarker analysis. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2025;12(2):280\u201390.","journal-title":"Ann Clin Transl Neurol"},{"issue":"12","key":"1512_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-024-01382-7","volume":"24","author":"E C\u00e1ceres","year":"2024","unstructured":"C\u00e1ceres E, Olivella JC, Di Napoli M, Raihane AS, Divani AA. Immune response in traumatic brain injury. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2024;24(12):593\u2013609.","journal-title":"Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep"},{"issue":"10","key":"1512_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70752","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.70752","volume":"21","author":"IMW Verberk","year":"2025","unstructured":"Verberk IMW, Gouda M, Antwi-Berko D, et al. Evidence-based standardized sample handling protocol for accurate blood-based Alzheimer\u2019s disease biomarker measurement. Alzheimers Dement. 2025;21(10):e70752.","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"1512_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-025-04080-0","author":"H Huber","year":"2026","unstructured":"Huber H, Montoliu-Gaya L, Brum WS, et al. A minimally invasive dried blood spot biomarker test for the detection of Alzheimer\u2019s disease pathology. Nat Med. 2026;32:599\u2013608. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41591-025-04080-0.","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"1512_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.230397","volume":"310","author":"M Zhang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhang M, Meng H, Zhou Q, et al. Microglial activation imaging using 18F-DPA-714 PET\/MRI for detecting autoimmune encephalitis. Radiology. 2024;310(3):e230397.","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"issue":"2","key":"1512_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-023-06446-3","volume":"51","author":"M Zhang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhang M, Qian XH, Hu J, et al. Integrating TSPO PET imaging and transcriptomics to unveil the role of neuroinflammation and amyloid-\u03b2 deposition in Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2024;51(2):455\u201367.","journal-title":"Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging"},{"issue":"2","key":"1512_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.3174\/ajnr.A4893","volume":"38","author":"DM Mandell","year":"2017","unstructured":"Mandell DM, Mossa-Basha M, Qiao Y, et al. Intracranial vessel wall MRI: principles and expert consensus recommendations of the American Society of Neuroradiology. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2017;38(2):218\u201329.","journal-title":"AJNR Am J Neuroradiol"},{"issue":"6","key":"1512_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1567","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.115.009037","volume":"48","author":"M Mossa-Basha","year":"2017","unstructured":"Mossa-Basha M, de Havenon A, Becker KJ, et al. Added value of vessel wall magnetic resonance imaging in the differentiation of intracranial vasculopathic processes. Stroke. 2017;48(6):1567\u201374.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"issue":"6","key":"1512_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2016.59","volume":"12","author":"M Absinta","year":"2016","unstructured":"Absinta M, Sati P, Reich DS. Advanced MRI and staging of multiple sclerosis lesions. Nat Rev Neurol. 2016;12(6):358\u201368.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurol"},{"key":"1512_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Jain P, Chaney AM, Carlson ML, Jackson IM, Rao A, James ML. Neuroinflammation PET imaging: current opinion and future directions. J Nucl Med. 2020;61(8):1107\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2967\/jnumed.119.229443. PMID: 32620705","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.119.229443"},{"issue":"4","key":"1512_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(15)00401-9","volume":"15","author":"F Graus","year":"2016","unstructured":"Graus F, Titulaer MJ, Balu R, et al. A clinical approach to diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis. Lancet Neurol. 2016;15(4):391\u2013404.","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"1512_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-026-12320-1","author":"Y Wang","year":"2026","unstructured":"Wang Y, Fan Z, Song JW, et al. Expert consensus on intracranial vessel wall MRI in cerebrovascular disease: Society for Magnetic Resonance Angiography recommendations. Eur Radiol. 2026;36:5844\u20135856. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00330-026-12320-1.","journal-title":"Eur Radiol"},{"issue":"11","key":"1512_CR36","first-page":"1205","volume":"134","author":"ER Koc","year":"2023","unstructured":"Koc ER, Turan \u00d6F, Saridas F, Lazrak ES, Acar Ozen P, Tuncer A. Probable eculizumab-associated hepatotoxicity in a patient with neuromyelitis optica: a case report. Int J Neurosci. 2023;134(11):1205\u20139.","journal-title":"Int J Neurosci"},{"issue":"3","key":"1512_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/wsbm.1545","volume":"14","author":"BM Soteros","year":"2022","unstructured":"Soteros BM, Sia GM. Complement and microglia dependent synapse elimination in brain development. WIREs Mech Dis. 2022;14(3):e1545.","journal-title":"WIREs Mech Dis"},{"key":"1512_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"768108","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.768108","volume":"11","author":"XX Peng","year":"2021","unstructured":"Peng XX, Luo Z, He S, Zhang L, Li Y. Blood-brain barrier disruption by lipopolysaccharide and sepsis-associated encephalopathy. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2021;11:768108.","journal-title":"Front Cell Infect Microbiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"1512_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2488","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-16191-y","volume":"11","author":"L Kang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kang L, Yu H, Yang X, et al. Neutrophil extracellular traps released by neutrophils impair revascularization and vascular remodeling after stroke. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):2488.","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"1512_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.855006","volume":"13","author":"Y Li","year":"2022","unstructured":"Li Y, Ji M, Yang J. Current understanding of long-term cognitive impairment after sepsis. Front Immunol. 2022;13:855006.","journal-title":"Front Immunol"}],"container-title":["Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11910-026-01512-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11910-026-01512-3","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s11910-026-01512-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T22:02:32Z","timestamp":1791064952000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s11910-026-01512-3"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1512"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11910-026-01512-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["1534-6293"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1534-6293","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]]},"assertion":[{"value":"5 August 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 August 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 October 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"This article is a narrative review synthesizing previously published data and does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors. All studies with human or animal subjects cited herein have been previously published and complied with all applicable ethical standards, including the Helsinki declaration and its amendments, institutional and national research committee standards, and international, national, and institutional guidelines.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing Interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The figure is an original schematic prepared by the study team, and the clinical images are real, de-identified patient-derived material rather than AI-generated content. Large language models were not used as authors and made no substantive contribution to the scientific content, analysis, or conclusions of this work.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Generative AI Use","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"55"}}