{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T13:57:48Z","timestamp":1770818268751,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":97,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770768000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770768000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Clinic Rev Allerg Immunol"],"DOI":"10.1007\/s12016-026-09138-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T11:15:16Z","timestamp":1770808516000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Geoepidemiology of Autoimmune Hepatitis"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"69","author":[{"given":"Yang","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiangzhen","family":"Meng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Patrick S. C.","family":"Leung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"M. Eric","family":"Gershwin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Diego","family":"Vergani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Junmin","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"9138_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2018.17","volume":"4","author":"G Mieli-Vergani","year":"2018","unstructured":"Mieli-Vergani G, Vergani D, Czaja AJ, Manns MP, Krawitt EL, Vierling JM et al (2018) Autoimmune hepatitis. Nat Rev Dis Primers 4:18017","journal-title":"Nat Rev Dis Primers"},{"key":"9138_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2018.10.020","volume":"95","author":"A Floreani","year":"2018","unstructured":"Floreani A, Restrepo-Jim\u00e9nez P, Secchi MF, De Martin S, Leung PSC, Krawitt E et al (2018) Etiopathogenesis of autoimmune hepatitis. J Autoimmun 95:133\u2013143","journal-title":"J Autoimmun"},{"key":"9138_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.921765","volume":"13","author":"AJ Czaja","year":"2022","unstructured":"Czaja AJ (2022) Epigenetic aspects and prospects in autoimmune hepatitis. Front Immunol 13:921765","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"9138_CR4","first-page":"5153","volume":"8","author":"R Lin","year":"2015","unstructured":"Lin R, Zhou L, Zhang J, Wang B (2015) Abnormal intestinal permeability and microbiota in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Int J Clin Exp Pathol 8:5153\u20135160","journal-title":"Int J Clin Exp Pathol"},{"key":"9138_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2015.01.009","volume":"14","author":"A Lerner","year":"2015","unstructured":"Lerner A, Matthias T (2015) Changes in intestinal tight junction permeability associated with industrial food additives explain the rising incidence of autoimmune disease. Autoimmun Rev 14:479\u2013489","journal-title":"Autoimmun Rev"},{"key":"9138_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2023.102280","volume":"65","author":"JW Hahn","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hahn JW, Yang HR, Moon JS, Chang JY, Lee K, Kim GA et al (2023) Global incidence and prevalence of autoimmune hepatitis, 1970\u20132022: a systematic review and meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine 65:102280","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"9138_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1676","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.14746","volume":"34","author":"T Lv","year":"2019","unstructured":"Lv T, Li M, Zeng N, Zhang J, Li S, Chen S et al (2019) Systematic review and meta-analysis on the incidence and prevalence of autoimmune hepatitis in Asian, European, and American population. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 34:1676\u20131684","journal-title":"J Gastroenterol Hepatol"},{"key":"9138_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2020-322362","volume":"70","author":"PJ Trivedi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Trivedi PJ, Hirschfield GM (2021) Recent advances in clinical practice: epidemiology of autoimmune liver diseases. Gut 70:1989\u20132003","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"9138_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2021.01.029","volume":"19","author":"GJ Webb","year":"2021","unstructured":"Webb GJ, Ryan RP, Marshall TP, Hirschfield GM (2021) The epidemiology of UK autoimmune liver disease varies with geographic latitude. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 19:2587\u20132596","journal-title":"Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol"},{"key":"9138_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.32653","volume":"77","author":"T Bittermann","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bittermann T, Lewis JD, Levy C, Goldberg DS (2023) Sociodemographic and geographic differences in the US epidemiology of autoimmune hepatitis with and without cirrhosis. Hepatology 77:367\u2013378","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"9138_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1828","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.21884","volume":"46","author":"S Verma","year":"2007","unstructured":"Verma S, Torbenson M, Thuluvath PJ (2007) The impact of ethnicity on the natural history of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 46:1828\u20131835","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"9138_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2015","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.15155","volume":"42","author":"T Katsumi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Katsumi T, Ueno Y (2022) Epidemiology and surveillance of autoimmune hepatitis in Asia. Liver Int 42:2015\u20132022","journal-title":"Liver Int"},{"key":"9138_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e107","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0000000000002122","volume":"67","author":"A Costaguta","year":"2018","unstructured":"Costaguta A, Gonz\u00e1lez A, Pochettino S, Trotta L, Vicent\u00edn R, Wagener M (2018) Incidence and clinical features of autoimmune hepatitis in the province of Santa Fe (Argentina). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 67:e107\u2013e110","journal-title":"J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr"},{"key":"9138_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1237","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2015-0578","volume":"136","author":"C Jim\u00e9nez-Rivera","year":"2015","unstructured":"Jim\u00e9nez-Rivera C, Ling SC, Ahmed N, Yap J, Aglipay M, Barrowman N et al (2015) Incidence and characteristics of autoimmune hepatitis. Pediatrics 136:e1237-1248","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"9138_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1392","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.26454","volume":"58","author":"M Deneau","year":"2013","unstructured":"Deneau M, Jensen MK, Holmen J, Williams MS, Book LS, Guthery SL (2013) Primary sclerosing cholangitis, autoimmune hepatitis, and overlap in Utah children: epidemiology and natural history. Hepatology 58:1392\u20131400","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"9138_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/PG9.0000000000000223","volume":"3","author":"H Sutton","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sutton H, Tayler R, Chalmers I, Cowieson J, Fraser K, Henderson P et al (2022) The epidemiology of pediatric autoimmune hepatitis in Scotland: a national cohort study. JPGN Rep 3:e223","journal-title":"JPGN Rep"},{"key":"9138_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1155\/2007\/757906","volume":"21","author":"HV Chung","year":"2007","unstructured":"Chung HV, Riley M, Ho JK, Leung B, Jevon GP, Arbour LT et al (2007) Retrospective review of pediatric and adult autoimmune hepatitis in two quaternary care centres in British Columbia: increased prevalence seen in British Columbia\u2019s First Nations community. Can J Gastroenterol 21:565\u2013568","journal-title":"Can J Gastroenterol"},{"key":"9138_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14250","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-71296-0","volume":"10","author":"A Takahashi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Takahashi A, Ohira H, Abe K, Zeniya M, Abe M, Arinaga-Hino T et al (2020) Increasing incidence of acute autoimmune hepatitis: a nationwide survey in Japan. Sci Rep 10:14250","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"9138_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1111\/hepr.13342","volume":"49","author":"A Tanaka","year":"2019","unstructured":"Tanaka A, Mori M, Matsumoto K, Ohira H, Tazuma S, Takikawa H (2019) Increase trend in the prevalence and male-to-female ratio of primary biliary cholangitis, autoimmune hepatitis, and primary sclerosing cholangitis in Japan. Hepatol Res 49:881\u2013889","journal-title":"Hepatol Res"},{"key":"9138_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2020.10.006","volume":"19","author":"R Sharma","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sharma R, Verna EC, S\u00f6derling J, Roelstraete B, Hagstr\u00f6m H, Ludvigsson JF (2021) Increased mortality risk in autoimmune hepatitis: a nationwide population-based cohort study with histopathology. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 19:2636-2647.e2613","journal-title":"Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol"},{"key":"9138_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2013.10.020","volume":"60","author":"L Gr\u00f8nb\u00e6k","year":"2014","unstructured":"Gr\u00f8nb\u00e6k L, Vilstrup H, Jepsen P (2014) Autoimmune hepatitis in Denmark: incidence, prevalence, prognosis, and causes of death. A nationwide registry-based cohort study. J Hepatol 60:612\u2013617","journal-title":"J Hepatol"},{"key":"9138_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1634","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.14480","volume":"40","author":"L Gr\u00f8nbaek","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gr\u00f8nbaek L, Otete H, Ban L, Crooks C, Card T, Jepsen P et al (2020) Incidence, prevalence and mortality of autoimmune hepatitis in England 1997\u20132015. a population-based cohort study. Liver Int 40:1634\u20131644","journal-title":"Liver Int"},{"key":"9138_CR23","first-page":"1022","volume":"52","author":"\u00c5 Danielsson Borss\u00e9n","year":"2017","unstructured":"Danielsson Borss\u00e9n \u00c5, Marschall HU, Bergquist A, Rorsman F, Weiland O, Kechagias S et al (2017) Epidemiology and causes of death in a Swedish cohort of patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Scand J Gastroenterol 52:1022\u20131028","journal-title":"Scand J Gastroenterol"},{"key":"9138_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dld.2019.01.015","volume":"51","author":"L Puustinen","year":"2019","unstructured":"Puustinen L, Barner-Rasmussen N, Pukkala E, F\u00e4rkkil\u00e4 M (2019) Incidence, prevalence, and causes of death of patients with autoimmune hepatitis: a nationwide register-based cohort study in Finland. Dig Liver Dis 51:1294\u20131299","journal-title":"Dig Liver Dis"},{"key":"9138_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1230","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.12952","volume":"30","author":"F Yang","year":"2015","unstructured":"Yang F, Wang Q, Bian Z, Ren LL, Jia J, Ma X (2015) Autoimmune hepatitis: east meets west. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 30:1230\u20131236","journal-title":"J Gastroenterol Hepatol"},{"key":"9138_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1038\/gene.2014.82","volume":"16","author":"NM van Gerven","year":"2015","unstructured":"van Gerven NM, de Boer YS, Zwiers A, Verwer BJ, Drenth JP, van Hoek B et al (2015) HLA-DRB1*03:01 and HLA-DRB1*04:01 modify the presentation and outcome in autoimmune hepatitis type-1. Genes Immun 16:247\u2013252","journal-title":"Genes Immun"},{"key":"9138_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1524","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.27983","volume":"62","author":"MM Kirstein","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kirstein MM, Metzler F, Geiger E, Heinrich E, Hallensleben M, Manns MP et al (2015) Prediction of short- and long-term outcome in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 62:1524\u20131535","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"9138_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/HC9.0000000000000824","volume":"9","author":"J Yao","year":"2025","unstructured":"Yao J, Jiang SF, Kapoor C, Balasubramanian S, Ramalingam ND, Saxena V et al (2025) The prevalence of autoimmune hepatitis is rising: estimates and trends from a large, multi-ethnic cohort in the United States. Hepatol Commun 9:e0824","journal-title":"Hepatol Commun"},{"key":"9138_CR29","first-page":"1616","volume":"17","author":"YS de Boer","year":"2019","unstructured":"de Boer YS, Gerussi A, van den Brand FF, Wong GW, Halliday N, Liberal R et al (2019) Association between black race and presentation and liver-related outcomes of patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol Off Clin Pract J Am Gastroenterol Assoc 17:1616-1624.e1612","journal-title":"Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol Off Clin Pract J Am Gastroenterol Assoc"},{"key":"9138_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.14081","volume":"39","author":"SK Palle","year":"2019","unstructured":"Palle SK, Naik KB (2019) Racial disparities in presentation and outcomes of paediatric autoimmune hepatitis. Liver Int 39:976\u2013984","journal-title":"Liver Int"},{"key":"9138_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1136\/flgastro-2022-102113","volume":"14","author":"DU Lee","year":"2023","unstructured":"Lee DU, Kwon J, Koo C, Han J, Fan GH, Jung D et al (2023) Clinical implications of gender and race in patients admitted with autoimmune hepatitis: updated analysis of US hospitals. Frontline Gastroenterol 14:111\u2013123","journal-title":"Frontline Gastroenterol"},{"key":"9138_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2017.456","volume":"113","author":"JW Wen","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wen JW, Kohn MA, Wong R, Somsouk M, Khalili M, Maher J et al (2018) Hospitalizations for autoimmune hepatitis disproportionately affect Black and Latino Americans. Am J Gastroenterol 113:243\u2013253","journal-title":"Am J Gastroenterol"},{"key":"9138_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/TXD.0000000000001160","volume":"7","author":"M McCabe","year":"2021","unstructured":"McCabe M, Rush N, Lammert C, Patidar KR, Nephew L, Saxena R et al (2021) Hla-dr mismatch and Black race are associated with recurrent autoimmune hepatitis after liver transplantation. Transplant Direct 7:e714","journal-title":"Transplant Direct"},{"key":"9138_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1097\/MCG.0b013e318228b781","volume":"46","author":"RJ Wong","year":"2012","unstructured":"Wong RJ, Gish R, Frederick T, Bzowej N, Frenette C (2012) The impact of race\/ethnicity on the clinical epidemiology of autoimmune hepatitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 46:155\u2013161","journal-title":"J Clin Gastroenterol"},{"key":"9138_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2013.12.010","volume":"12","author":"C Levy","year":"2014","unstructured":"Levy C, Naik J, Giordano C, Mandalia A, O\u2019Brien C, Bhamidimarri KR et al (2014) Hispanics with primary biliary cirrhosis are more likely to have features of autoimmune hepatitis and reduced response to ursodeoxycholic acid than non-Hispanics. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 12:1398\u20131405","journal-title":"Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol"},{"key":"9138_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1080\/08916934.2018.1482884","volume":"51","author":"B Lee","year":"2018","unstructured":"Lee B, Holt EW, Wong RJ, Sewell JL, Somsouk M, Khalili M et al (2018) Race\/ethnicity is an independent risk factor for autoimmune hepatitis among the San Francisco underserved. Autoimmunity 51:258\u2013264","journal-title":"Autoimmunity"},{"key":"9138_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2402","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2002.06019.x","volume":"97","author":"KJ Hurlburt","year":"2002","unstructured":"Hurlburt KJ, McMahon BJ, Deubner H, Hsu-Trawinski B, Williams JL, Kowdley KV (2002) Prevalence of autoimmune liver disease in Alaska natives. Am J Gastroenterol 97:2402\u20132407","journal-title":"Am J Gastroenterol"},{"key":"9138_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1155\/2008\/642432","volume":"22","author":"GY Minuk","year":"2008","unstructured":"Minuk GY, Liu S, Kaita K, Wong S, Renner E, Rempel J et al (2008) Autoimmune hepatitis in a North American Aboriginal\/First Nations population. Can J Gastroenterol 22:829\u2013834","journal-title":"Can J Gastroenterol"},{"key":"9138_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2014.04.022","volume":"147","author":"YS de Boer","year":"2014","unstructured":"de Boer YS, van Gerven NM, Zwiers A, Verwer BJ, van Hoek B, van Erpecum KJ et al (2014) Genome-wide association study identifies variants associated with autoimmune hepatitis type 1. Gastroenterology 147:443-452.e445","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"9138_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2008.11.005","volume":"8","author":"C Duarte-Rey","year":"2009","unstructured":"Duarte-Rey C, Pardo AL, Rodr\u00edguez-Velosa Y, Mantilla RD, Anaya JM, Rojas-Villarraga A (2009) HLA class II association with autoimmune hepatitis in Latin America: a meta-analysis. Autoimmun Rev 8:325\u2013331","journal-title":"Autoimmun Rev"},{"key":"9138_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2004.12.019","volume":"42","author":"K Yoshizawa","year":"2005","unstructured":"Yoshizawa K, Ota M, Katsuyama Y, Ichijo T, Matsumoto A, Tanaka E et al (2005) Genetic analysis of the HLA region of Japanese patients with type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 42:578\u2013584","journal-title":"J Hepatol"},{"key":"9138_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2007.08.019","volume":"48","author":"YS Lim","year":"2008","unstructured":"Lim YS, Oh HB, Choi SE, Kwon OJ, Heo YS, Lee HC et al (2008) Susceptibility to type 1 autoimmune hepatitis is associated with shared amino acid sequences at positions 70\u201374 of the HLA-DRB1 molecule. J Hepatol 48:133\u2013139","journal-title":"J Hepatol"},{"key":"9138_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhepr.2023.100926","volume":"6","author":"Y Li","year":"2023","unstructured":"Li Y, Zhou L, Huang Z, Yang Y, Zhang J, Yang L et al (2023) Fine mapping identifies independent HLA associations in autoimmune hepatitis type 1. JHEP Rep Innov Hepatol 6:100926","journal-title":"JHEP Rep Innov Hepatol"},{"key":"9138_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2028","DOI":"10.1053\/gast.1997.v112.pm9178696","volume":"112","author":"MD Strettell","year":"1997","unstructured":"Strettell MD, Donaldson PT, Thomson LJ, Santrach PJ, Moore SB, Czaja AJ et al (1997) Allelic basis for HLA-encoded susceptibility to type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology 112:2028\u20132035","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"9138_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.1840190311","volume":"19","author":"DG Doherty","year":"1994","unstructured":"Doherty DG, Donaldson PT, Underhill JA, Farrant JM, Duthie A, Mieli-Vergani G et al (1994) Allelic sequence variation in the HLA class II genes and proteins in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 19:609\u2013615","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"9138_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.32417","volume":"76","author":"Y Li","year":"2022","unstructured":"Li Y, Sun Y, Liu Y, Wang B, Li J, Wang H et al (2022) Genome-wide meta-analysis identifies susceptibility loci for autoimmune hepatitis type 1. Hepatology 76:564\u2013575","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"9138_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathol-020117-043534","volume":"13","author":"GJ Webb","year":"2018","unstructured":"Webb GJ, Hirschfield GM, Krawitt EL, Gershwin ME (2018) Cellular and molecular mechanisms of autoimmune hepatitis. Annu Rev Pathol 13:247\u2013292","journal-title":"Annu Rev Pathol"},{"key":"9138_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1159\/000454879","volume":"1","author":"H Enomoto","year":"2017","unstructured":"Enomoto H, Nishiguchi S (2017) Similarities and differences in autoimmune hepatitis epidemiology between East and West: autoimmune hepatitis in East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. Inflamm Intest Dis 1:150\u2013158","journal-title":"Inflamm Intest Dis"},{"key":"9138_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2484","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02484","volume":"9","author":"M Ghareghani","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ghareghani M, Reiter RJ, Zibara K, Farhadi N (2018) Latitude, vitamin D, melatonin, and gut microbiota act in concert to initiate multiple sclerosis: a new mechanistic pathway. Front Immunol 9:2484","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"9138_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.15029","volume":"49","author":"M Ebadi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ebadi M, Bhanji RA, Mazurak VC, Lytvyak E, Mason A, Czaja AJ et al (2019) Severe vitamin D deficiency is a prognostic biomarker in autoimmune hepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 49:173\u2013182","journal-title":"Aliment Pharmacol Ther"},{"key":"9138_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3035","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-014-3267-3","volume":"59","author":"C Efe","year":"2014","unstructured":"Efe C, Kav T, Aydin C, Cengiz M, Imga NN, Purnak T et al (2014) Low serum vitamin D levels are associated with severe histological features and poor response to therapy in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci 59:3035\u20133042","journal-title":"Dig Dis Sci"},{"key":"9138_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.18438","volume":"61","author":"Y Kilani","year":"2025","unstructured":"Kilani Y, Alsakarneh S, Madi MY, Mosquera DAG, Ferreira MN, Jaber F et al (2025) Autoimmune hepatitis and vitamin D deficiency: a nationwide perspective. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 61:682\u2013692","journal-title":"Aliment Pharmacol Ther"},{"key":"9138_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0239481","volume":"15","author":"K Abe","year":"2020","unstructured":"Abe K, Fujita M, Hayashi M, Takahashi A, Ohira H (2020) Association of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels with severe necroinflammatory activity and inflammatory cytokine production in type I autoimmune hepatitis. PLoS One 15:e0239481","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"9138_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-018-5351-6","volume":"64","author":"AJ Czaja","year":"2019","unstructured":"Czaja AJ, Montano-Loza AJ (2019) Evolving role of vitamin D in immune-mediated disease and its implications in autoimmune hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci 64:324\u2013344","journal-title":"Dig Dis Sci"},{"key":"9138_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1038\/aps.2010.53","volume":"31","author":"XD Hu","year":"2010","unstructured":"Hu XD, Jiang SL, Liu CH, Hu YY, Liu C, Sun MY et al (2010) Preventive effects of 1,25-(OH)2VD3 against ConA-induced mouse hepatitis through promoting vitamin D receptor gene expression. Acta Pharmacol Sin 31:703\u2013708","journal-title":"Acta Pharmacol Sin"},{"key":"9138_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.31065","volume":"72","author":"CL Mack","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mack CL, Adams D, Assis DN, Kerkar N, Manns M, Mayo MJ et al (2020) Diagnosis and management of autoimmune hepatitis in adults and children: 2019 practice guidance and guidelines from the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Hepatology 72:671\u2013722","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"9138_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2014.07.027","volume":"61","author":"E Gower","year":"2014","unstructured":"Gower E, Estes C, Blach S, Razavi-Shearer K, Razavi H (2014) Global epidemiology and genotype distribution of the hepatitis C virus infection. J Hepatol 61:S45-57","journal-title":"J Hepatol"},{"key":"9138_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2021.102845","volume":"20","author":"G Murdaca","year":"2021","unstructured":"Murdaca G, Greco M, Borro M, Gangemi S (2021) Hygiene hypothesis and autoimmune diseases: a narrative review of clinical evidences and mechanisms. Autoimmun Rev 20:102845","journal-title":"Autoimmun Rev"},{"key":"9138_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1007\/s12072-013-9448-x","volume":"7","author":"JH Ngu","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ngu JH, Gearry RB, Frampton CM, Stedman CA (2013) Autoimmune hepatitis: the role of environmental risk factors: a population-based study. Hepatol Int 7:869\u2013875","journal-title":"Hepatol Int"},{"key":"9138_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-021-00538-7","volume":"21","author":"CA Akdis","year":"2021","unstructured":"Akdis CA (2021) Does the epithelial barrier hypothesis explain the increase in allergy, autoimmunity and other chronic conditions? Nat Rev Immunol 21:739\u2013751","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"key":"9138_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imlet.2019.11.010","volume":"218","author":"G Chi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Chi G, Pei JH, Ma QY, Ru YX, Feng ZH (2020) Chemical induced inflammation of the liver breaks tolerance and results in autoimmune hepatitis in Balb\/c mice. Immunol Lett 218:44\u201350","journal-title":"Immunol Lett"},{"key":"9138_CR62","volume":"2010","author":"KM Gilbert","year":"2010","unstructured":"Gilbert KM (2010) Xenobiotic exposure and autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatitis Res Treat 2010:248157","journal-title":"Hepatitis Res Treat"},{"key":"9138_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/acr.25423","volume":"77","author":"FW Miller","year":"2025","unstructured":"Miller FW (2025) Environment, lifestyles, and climate change: the many nongenetic contributors to the long and winding road to autoimmune diseases. Arthritis Care Res 77:3\u201311","journal-title":"Arthritis Care Res"},{"key":"9138_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.2147\/CLEP.S439219","volume":"16","author":"L Gr\u00f8nb\u00e6k","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gr\u00f8nb\u00e6k L, Omeife H, Ban L, Crooks CJ, Card T, Jepsen P et al (2024) Smoking is a risk factor for autoimmune hepatitis: an English registry-based case-control study. Clin Epidemiol 16:23\u201330","journal-title":"Clin Epidemiol"},{"key":"9138_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2015) EASL clinical practice guidelines: autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 63:971\u20131004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2015.06.030"},{"key":"9138_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2341","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.14224","volume":"39","author":"KB Valgeirsson","year":"2019","unstructured":"Valgeirsson KB, Hreinsson JP, Bj\u00f6rnsson ES (2019) Increased incidence of autoimmune hepatitis is associated with wider use of biological drugs. Liver Int 39:2341\u20132349","journal-title":"Liver Int"},{"key":"9138_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1622","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2004.202","volume":"12","author":"Q Zhang","year":"2004","unstructured":"Zhang Q, Wang Y (2004) Trends in the association between obesity and socioeconomic status in U.S. adults: 1971 to 2000. Obes Res 12:1622\u20131632","journal-title":"Obes Res"},{"key":"9138_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00231","volume":"8","author":"DJ McMaughan","year":"2020","unstructured":"McMaughan DJ, Oloruntoba O, Smith ML (2020) Socioeconomic status and access to healthcare: interrelated drivers for healthy aging. Front Public Health 8:231","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"9138_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1002\/jpn3.12311","volume":"79","author":"R Bolia","year":"2024","unstructured":"Bolia R, Goel A, Semwal P, Srivastava A (2024) Prevalence and significance of autoantibodies in children with metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 79:667\u2013673","journal-title":"J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr"},{"key":"9138_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2016.02.007","volume":"69","author":"P M\u00fcller","year":"2016","unstructured":"M\u00fcller P, Messmer M, Bayer M, Pfeilschifter JM, Hintermann E, Christen U (2016) Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) potentiates autoimmune hepatitis in the CYP2D6 mouse model. J Autoimmun 69:51\u201358","journal-title":"J Autoimmun"},{"key":"9138_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1002\/jgh3.12046","volume":"2","author":"A Takahashi","year":"2018","unstructured":"Takahashi A, Arinaga-Hino T, Ohira H, Abe K, Torimura T, Zeniya M et al (2018) Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. JGH Open 2:54\u201358","journal-title":"JGH Open"},{"key":"9138_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhepr.2023.100778","volume":"5","author":"K Zachou","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zachou K, Azariadis K, Lytvyak E, Snijders R, Takahashi A, Gatselis NK et al (2023) Treatment responses and outcomes in patients with autoimmune hepatitis and concomitant features of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. JHEP Rep 5:100778","journal-title":"JHEP Rep"},{"key":"9138_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2876","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.31985","volume":"74","author":"BT Lee","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lee BT, Tana MM, Kahn JA, Dara L (2021) We are not immune: racial and ethnic disparities in autoimmune liver diseases. Hepatology 74:2876\u20132887","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"9138_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.18235","volume":"60","author":"C Singleton","year":"2024","unstructured":"Singleton C, Carter A, Baker B, Jones E, Green K, Lammert C et al (2024) Low socioeconomic status exacerbates unmet health-related needs in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 60:1339\u20131350","journal-title":"Aliment Pharmacol Ther"},{"key":"9138_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjopharm.2010.03.002","volume":"8","author":"BS Gerber","year":"2010","unstructured":"Gerber BS, Cho YI, Arozullah AM, Lee SY (2010) Racial differences in medication adherence: a cross-sectional study of Medicare enrollees. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother 8:136\u2013145","journal-title":"Am J Geriatr Pharmacother"},{"key":"9138_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1186\/s12877-017-0558-5","volume":"17","author":"M Bazargan","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bazargan M, Smith J, Yazdanshenas H, Movassaghi M, Martins D, Orum G (2017) Non-adherence to medication regimens among older African-American adults. BMC Geriatr 17:163","journal-title":"BMC Geriatr"},{"key":"9138_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-020-00850-3","volume":"8","author":"GL Hall","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hall GL, Heath M (2021) Poor medication adherence in African Americans is a matter of trust. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 8:927\u2013942","journal-title":"J Racial Ethn Health Disparities"},{"issue":"1","key":"9138_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/22423982.2023.2221368","volume":"82","author":"KR Nielsen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Nielsen KR, Midjord J, Johannesen HL, Gr\u00f8nb\u00e6k H (2023) A nationwide study of autoimmune liver diseases in the Faroe Islands: incidence, prevalence, and causes of death 2004\u20132021. Int J Circumpolar Health 82(1):2221368","journal-title":"Int J Circumpolar Health"},{"key":"9138_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2013.12.002","volume":"13","author":"OJ Calixto","year":"2014","unstructured":"Calixto OJ, Anaya JM (2014) Socioeconomic status. The relationship with health and autoimmune diseases. Autoimmun Rev 13:641\u2013654","journal-title":"Autoimmun Rev"},{"key":"9138_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1080\/00365529850166284","volume":"33","author":"KM Boberg","year":"1998","unstructured":"Boberg KM, Aadland E, Jahnsen J, Raknerud N, Stiris M, Bell H (1998) Incidence and prevalence of primary biliary cirrhosis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, and autoimmune hepatitis in a Norwegian population. Scand J Gastroenterol 33:99\u2013103","journal-title":"Scand J Gastroenterol"},{"key":"9138_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1978","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-005-9068-y","volume":"51","author":"LB Koay","year":"2006","unstructured":"Koay LB, Lin CY, Tsai SL, Lee C, Lin CN, Sheu MJ et al (2006) Type 1 autoimmune hepatitis in Taiwan: diagnosis using the revised criteria of the International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group. Dig Dis Sci 51:1978\u20131984","journal-title":"Dig Dis Sci"},{"key":"9138_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1080\/00365520802130183","volume":"43","author":"M Werner","year":"2008","unstructured":"Werner M, Prytz H, Ohlsson B, Almer S, Bj\u00f6rnsson E, Bergquist A et al (2008) Epidemiology and the initial presentation of autoimmune hepatitis in Sweden: a nationwide study. Scand J Gastroenterol 43:1232\u20131240","journal-title":"Scand J Gastroenterol"},{"key":"9138_CR83","first-page":"402","volume":"72","author":"J Primo","year":"2009","unstructured":"Primo J, Maroto N, Mart\u00ednez M, Ant\u00f3n MD, Zaragoza A, Giner R et al (2009) Incidence of adult form of autoimmune hepatitis in Valencia (Spain). Acta Gastro-Enterol Belg 72:402\u2013406","journal-title":"Acta Gastro-Enterol Belg"},{"key":"9138_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1681","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1746.2010.06384.x","volume":"25","author":"JH Ngu","year":"2010","unstructured":"Ngu JH, Bechly K, Chapman BA, Burt MJ, Barclay ML, Gearry RB et al (2010) Population-based epidemiology study of autoimmune hepatitis: a disease of older women? J Gastroenterol Hepatol 25:1681\u20131686","journal-title":"J Gastroenterol Hepatol"},{"key":"9138_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-2980.12085","volume":"14","author":"JS Delgado","year":"2013","unstructured":"Delgado JS, Vodonos A, Malnick S, Kriger O, Wilkof-Segev R, Delgado B et al (2013) Autoimmune hepatitis in southern Israel: a 15-year multicenter study. J Dig Dis 14:611\u2013618","journal-title":"J Dig Dis"},{"key":"9138_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1245","DOI":"10.3109\/00365521.2014.946083","volume":"49","author":"NM van Gerven","year":"2014","unstructured":"van Gerven NM, Verwer BJ, Witte BI, van Erpecum KJ, van Buuren HR, Maijers I et al (2014) Epidemiology and clinical characteristics of autoimmune hepatitis in the Netherlands. Scand J Gastroenterol 49:1245\u20131254","journal-title":"Scand J Gastroenterol"},{"key":"9138_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1111\/hepr.12639","volume":"46","author":"K Yoshizawa","year":"2016","unstructured":"Yoshizawa K, Joshita S, Matsumoto A, Umemura T, Tanaka E, Morita S et al (2016) Incidence and prevalence of autoimmune hepatitis in the Ueda area, Japan. Hepatol Res 46:878\u2013883","journal-title":"Hepatol Res"},{"key":"9138_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0182391","volume":"12","author":"BH Kim","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kim BH, Choi HY, Ki M, Kim KA, Jang ES, Jeong SH (2017) Population-based prevalence, incidence, and disease burden of autoimmune hepatitis in South Korea. PLoS One 12:e0182391","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"9138_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2020.05.061","volume":"19","author":"M Lamba","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lamba M, Ngu JH, Stedman CAM (2021) Trends in incidence of autoimmune liver diseases and increasing incidence of autoimmune hepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 19:573-579.e571","journal-title":"Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol"},{"key":"9138_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1186\/s13023-024-03086-0","volume":"19","author":"J Lim","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lim J, Kim HJ (2024) Epidemiology of autoimmune liver disease in Korea: evidence from a nationwide real-world database. Orphanet J Rare Dis 19:178","journal-title":"Orphanet J Rare Dis"},{"key":"9138_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhepr.2025.101546","volume":"7","author":"C Corpechot","year":"2025","unstructured":"Corpechot C, Hornus P, Cals M, Rinder P, Marcille T, Malek A et al (2025) Epidemiology, comorbidities, treatments and outcomes of autoimmune liver diseases: a French nationwide study. JHEP Rep Innov Hepatol 7:101546","journal-title":"JHEP Rep Innov Hepatol"},{"key":"9138_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1384","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1440-1746.2001.02646.x","volume":"16","author":"YM Lee","year":"2001","unstructured":"Lee YM, Teo EK, Ng TM, Khor C, Fock KM (2001) Autoimmune hepatitis in Singapore: a rare syndrome affecting middle-aged women. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 16:1384\u20131389","journal-title":"J Gastroenterol Hepatol"},{"key":"9138_CR93","first-page":"602","volume":"8","author":"A Jalihal","year":"2009","unstructured":"Jalihal A, Telisinghe PU, Chong VH (2009) Profiles of autoimmune hepatitis in Brunei Darussalam. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int 8:602\u2013607","journal-title":"Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int"},{"key":"9138_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1445-5994.2009.02041.x","volume":"40","author":"AS Haider","year":"2010","unstructured":"Haider AS, Kaye G, Thomson A (2010) Autoimmune hepatitis in a demographically isolated area of Australia. Intern Med J 40:281\u2013285","journal-title":"Intern Med J"},{"key":"9138_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1055\/a-1135-9306","volume":"58","author":"M Sebode","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sebode M, Kloppenburg A, Aigner A, Lohse AW, Schramm C, Linder R (2020) Population-based study of autoimmune hepatitis and primary biliary cholangitis in Germany: rising prevalences based on ICD codes, yet deficits in medical treatment. Z Gastroenterol 58:431\u2013438","journal-title":"Z Gastroenterol"},{"key":"9138_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1097\/MCG.0000000000001449","volume":"55","author":"NA Tunio","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tunio NA, Mansoor E, Sheriff MZ, Cooper GS, Sclair SN, Cohen SM (2021) Epidemiology of autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) in the United States between 2014 and 2019: a population-based national study. J Clin Gastroenterol 55:903\u2013910","journal-title":"J Clin Gastroenterol"},{"key":"9138_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/22423982.2024.2327693","volume":"83","author":"RH Gantzel","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gantzel RH, Bagge CN, Villadsen GE, Rex KF, Gr\u00f8nb\u00e6k H, Pedersen ML (2024) The prevalence and disease course of autoimmune liver diseases in Greenland. Int J Circumpolar Health 83:2327693","journal-title":"Int J Circumpolar Health"}],"container-title":["Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s12016-026-09138-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s12016-026-09138-6","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s12016-026-09138-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T12:02:34Z","timestamp":1770811354000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s12016-026-09138-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]]},"references-count":97,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["9138"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12016-026-09138-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["1559-0267"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1559-0267","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"23 October 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"20 January 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 February 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of Interest"}}],"article-number":"7"}}