{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T19:05:59Z","timestamp":1783451159816,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]],"date-time":"2025-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754438400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]],"date-time":"2025-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754438400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008722","name":"Universitat de Girona","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008722","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Forensic Sci Med Pathol"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The study aimed to examine the accuracy of Greulich and Pyle (GP) methodology for estimating age in a female UK sample since there is a dearth of studies testing its applicability in the UK.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Materials and methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Radiographs from the left wrist and hand belonging to 257 female individuals from two different hospitals from the UK ranging from 10 to 17 years old were analysed. Correlation was performed between skeletal age (SA) and chronological age (CA) values as well as mean comparisons. In addition, the mean difference (MD) and mean absolute difference (MAD) between these two parameters were also examined to study inaccuracy values.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A strong correlation was found between SA and CA (\n                      <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.887;\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.001). The MD between SA and CA is positive (0.51\u2009\u00b1\u200912.43 months), meaning that SA based on Greulich and Pyle atlas overestimates CA in general terms (minimum: \u2212\u200940.17 months; maximum: 31.13 months). In the case of MAD, the mean value is 9.96\u2009\u00b1\u20097.44 months (minimum: 0.07 months; maximum: 40.17 months). In addition, no significant differences were found between SA and CA either in the global sample or in most of the age cohorts, with two exceptions: 14-year-olds, where mean SA was significantly higher than CA, and 16-year-olds, where the opposite results were observed.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These results suggest that the GP atlas can be applied to the present female UK population, although caution must be taken when applied to estimating the age of post-pubertal UK girls.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s12024-025-01044-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]],"date-time":"2025-08-06T09:21:13Z","timestamp":1754472073000},"page":"1676-1688","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Assessing skeletal maturity in a UK modern female population"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4165-429X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"San-Mill\u00e1n","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Trish","family":"Holmes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1725-0853","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefano","family":"De Luca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4457-9187","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucina","family":"Hackman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5812-6189","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicholas","family":"M\u00e1rquez-Grant","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"1044_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2936","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-018-5718-2","volume":"29","author":"PS Dahlberg","year":"2019","unstructured":"Dahlberg PS, Mosd\u00f8l A, Ding Y, Bleka \u00d8, Rolseth V, Straumann GH, et al. A systematic review of the agreement between chronological age and skeletal age based on the Greulich and Pyle atlas. Eur Radiol. 2019;29:2936\u201348.","journal-title":"Eur Radiol"},{"key":"1044_CR2","volume-title":"Assessment of skeletal maturity and prediction of adult height (TW2 Method)","author":"JM Tanner","year":"1975","unstructured":"Tanner JM, Whitehouse RH, Marshall WA. Assessment of skeletal maturity and prediction of adult height (TW2 Method). New York: Academic; 1975."},{"key":"1044_CR3","unstructured":"European Asylum Support Office. EASO practical guide on age assessment. Second. EASO Practical Guides Series. 2018. Available from: https:\/\/www.easo.europa.eu\/sites\/default\/files\/easo-practical-guide-on-age-assesment-v3-2018.pdf"},{"key":"1044_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-024-03157-8","volume":"138","author":"M Cummaudo","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cummaudo M, Obertova Z, Lynnerup N, Petaros A, De Boer H, Baccino E, et al. Age assessment in unaccompanied minors: assessing uniformity of protocols across Europe. Int J Legal Med. 2024;138:983\u201395.","journal-title":"Int J Legal Med"},{"key":"1044_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Schmeling A, Dettmeyer R, Rudolf E, Vieth V, Geserick G. Forensic Age Estimation: Methods, Certainty, and the Law. Deutsches \u00c4rzteblatt international. 2016 [cited 2025 May 23]; Available from: https:\/\/www.aerzteblatt.de\/https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3238\/arztebl.2016.0044","DOI":"10.3238\/arztebl.2016.0044"},{"key":"1044_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2004.08.018","volume":"154","author":"PM Garamendi","year":"2005","unstructured":"Garamendi PM, Landa MI, Ballesteros J, Solano MA. Reliability of the methods applied to assess age minority in living subjects around 18 years old: A survey on a Moroccan origin population. Forensic Sci Int. 2005;154:3\u201312.","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"1044_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1159\/000329372","volume":"76","author":"DD Martin","year":"2011","unstructured":"Martin DD, Wit JM, Hochberg Z, S\u00e4vendahl L, van Rijn RR, Fricke O, et al. The use of bone age in clinical Practice\u2013 Part 1. Hormone Res Paediatrics. 2011;76:1\u20139.","journal-title":"Hormone Res Paediatrics"},{"key":"1044_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1159\/000329374","volume":"76","author":"DD Martin","year":"2011","unstructured":"Martin DD, Wit JM, Hochberg Z, van Rijn RR, Fricke O, Werther G, et al. The use of bone age in clinical Practice\u2013 Part 2. Hormone Res Paediatrics. 2011;76:10\u20136.","journal-title":"Hormone Res Paediatrics"},{"key":"1044_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajodo.2012.08.027","volume":"143","author":"S Suri","year":"2013","unstructured":"Suri S, Prasad C, Tompson B, Lou W. Longitudinal comparison of skeletal age determined by the Greulich and Pyle method and chronologic age in normally growing children, and clinical interpretations for orthodontics. Am J Orthod Dentofac Orthop. 2013;143:50\u201360.","journal-title":"Am J Orthod Dentofac Orthop"},{"key":"1044_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2010.073122","volume":"44","author":"L Engebretsen","year":"2010","unstructured":"Engebretsen L, Steffen K, Bahr R, Broderick C, Dvorak J, Janarv P-M, et al. The international olympic committee consensus statement on age determination in high-level young athletes. Br J Sports Med. 2010;44:476\u201384.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1044_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.2165\/11590300-000000000-00000","volume":"41","author":"RM Malina","year":"2011","unstructured":"Malina RM. Skeletal age and age verification in youth sport. Sports Med. 2011;41:925\u201347.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"1044_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2009.09.008","volume":"193","author":"E Cunha","year":"2009","unstructured":"Cunha E, Baccino E, Martrille L, Ramsthaler F, Prieto J, Schuliar Y, et al. The problem of aging human remains and living individuals: A review. Forensic Sci Int. 2009;193:1\u201313.","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"1044_CR13","unstructured":"Children. and Young Persons Act. Sections\u00a050 1933. Available from: http:\/\/www.legislation.gov.uk\/ukpga\/Geo5\/23-24\/12"},{"key":"1044_CR14","first-page":"53","volume":"5","author":"D Franklin","year":"2015","unstructured":"Franklin D, Flavel A, Noble J, Swift L, Karkhanis S. Forensic age estimation in living individuals: methodological considerations in the context of medico-legal practice. Res Rep Forensic Med Sci. 2015;5:53\u201366.","journal-title":"Res Rep Forensic Med Sci"},{"key":"1044_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-022-02926-7","volume":"137","author":"AM Taranilla Castro","year":"2023","unstructured":"Taranilla Castro AM, Pujol-Robinat A, Bad\u00eda Garc\u00eda MA, Mili\u00e1n Sebasti\u00e0 S, Mart\u00ednez Alc\u00e1zar H, Pom\u00e9s Tallo J, et al. Forensic age estimation in Barcelona: analysis of expert reports issued between 2011 and 2018. Int J Legal Med. 2023;137:395\u2013402.","journal-title":"Int J Legal Med"},{"key":"1044_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1881","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-024-03254-8","volume":"138","author":"F Thicot","year":"2024","unstructured":"Thicot F, Egger C, Castiglioni C, Magnin V, Boudabbous S, Angelakopoulos N, et al. Forensic age estimation at the University Center of Legal Medicine Lausanne-Geneva: a retrospective study over 12 years. Int J Legal Med. 2024;138:1881\u20139.","journal-title":"Int J Legal Med"},{"key":"1044_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1097\/00000441-195909000-00030","volume":"238","author":"WW Greulich","year":"1959","unstructured":"Greulich WW, Pyle SI. Radiographic atlas of skeletal development of the hand and wrist. 2nd ed. Stanford University Press. 1959.","journal-title":"Am J Med Sci"},{"key":"1044_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2910","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-018-5792-5","volume":"29","author":"K Alshamrani","year":"2019","unstructured":"Alshamrani K, Messina F, Offiah AC. Is the Greulich and Pyle atlas applicable to all ethnicities? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Radiol. 2019;29:2910\u201323.","journal-title":"Eur Radiol"},{"key":"1044_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2021.110689","volume":"320","author":"M Cummaudo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cummaudo M, De Angelis D, Magli F, Min\u00e0 G, Merelli V, Cattaneo C. Age Estimation in the living: a scoping review of population data for skeletal and dental methods. Forensic Sci Int. 2021;320:110689.","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"1044_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3124","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics13193124","volume":"13","author":"SE Mart\u00edn P\u00e9rez","year":"2023","unstructured":"Mart\u00edn P\u00e9rez SE, Mart\u00edn P\u00e9rez IM, Vega Gonz\u00e1lez JM, Molina Su\u00e1rez R, Le\u00f3n Hern\u00e1ndez C, Rodr\u00edguez Hern\u00e1ndez F, et al. Precision and accuracy of radiological bone age assessment in children among different ethnic groups: A systematic review. Diagnostics. 2023;13:3124.","journal-title":"Diagnostics"},{"key":"1044_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2007.02.023","volume":"173","author":"B B\u00fcken","year":"2007","unstructured":"B\u00fcken B, \u015eafak AA, Yaz\u0131c\u0131 B, B\u00fcken E, Mayda AS. Is the assessment of bone age by the Greulich\u2013Pyle method reliable at forensic age estimation for Turkish children? Forensic Sci Int. 2007;173:146\u201353.","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"1044_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1031","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2008.10.012","volume":"183","author":"B B\u00fcken","year":"2009","unstructured":"B\u00fcken B, Erzengin \u00d6U, B\u00fcken E, \u015eafak AA, Yaz\u0131c\u0131 B, Erkol Z. Comparison of the three age estimation methods: which is more reliable for Turkish children? Forensic Sci Int. 2009;183:e1031\u20137.","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"1044_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2011.05.032","volume":"212","author":"C Santos","year":"2011","unstructured":"Santos C, Ferreira M, Alves FC, Cunha E. Comparative study of Greulich and Pyle atlas and maturos 4.0 program for age estimation in a Portuguese sample. Forensic Sci Int. 2011;212:e2761\u20137.","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"1044_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1007\/s002470100531","volume":"31","author":"RR van Rijn","year":"2001","unstructured":"van Rijn RR, Lequin MH, Robben SGF, Hop WCJ, van Kuijk C. Is the Greulich and Pyle atlas still valid for Dutch Caucasian children today? Pediatr Radiol. 2001;31:748\u201352.","journal-title":"Pediatr Radiol"},{"key":"1044_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2013.11.011","volume":"22","author":"M Mansourvar","year":"2014","unstructured":"Mansourvar M, Ismail MA, Raj RG, Kareem SA, Aik S, Gunalan R, et al. The applicability of Greulich and Pyle atlas to assess skeletal age for four ethnic groups. J Forensic Leg Med. 2014;22:26\u20139.","journal-title":"J Forensic Leg Med"},{"key":"1044_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-200111000-00015","volume":"50","author":"S Mora","year":"2001","unstructured":"Mora S, Boechat MI, Pietka E, Huang HK, Gilsanz V. Skeletal age determinations in children of European and African descent: applicability of the Greulich and Pyle standards. Pediatr Res. 2001;50:624\u20138.","journal-title":"Pediatr Res"},{"key":"1044_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1007\/s004149900102","volume":"113","author":"A Schmeling","year":"2000","unstructured":"Schmeling A, Reisinger W, Loreck D, Vendura K, Markus W, Geserick G. Effects of ethnicity on skeletal maturation: consequences for forensic age estimations. Int J Leg Med. 2000;113:253\u20138.","journal-title":"Int J Leg Med"},{"key":"1044_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2493080468","volume":"250","author":"A Zhang","year":"2009","unstructured":"Zhang A, Sayre JW, Vachon L, Liu BJ, Huang HK. Racial differences in growth patterns of children assessed on the basis of bone age. Radiology. 2009;250:228\u201335.","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"1044_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-007-0165-7","volume":"121","author":"S Schmidt","year":"2007","unstructured":"Schmidt S, Koch B, Schulz R, Reisinger W, Schmeling A. Comparative analysis of the applicability of the skeletal age determination methods of Greulich\u2013Pyle and Thiemann\u2013Nitz for forensic age estimation in living subjects. Int J Legal Med. 2007;121:293\u20136.","journal-title":"Int J Legal Med"},{"key":"1044_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1556-4029.2011.02035.x","volume":"57","author":"K Cantekin","year":"2012","unstructured":"Cantekin K, Celikoglu M, Miloglu O, Dane A, Erdem A. Bone age assessment: the applicability of the Greulich\u2013Pyle method in Eastern Turkish children. J Forensic Sci. 2012;57:679\u201382.","journal-title":"J Forensic Sci"},{"key":"1044_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2012.04.014","volume":"221","author":"V Santoro","year":"2012","unstructured":"Santoro V, Roca R, De Donno D, Fiandaca A, Pinto G, Tafuri S, et al. Applicability of Greulich and Pyle and Demirijan aging methods to a sample of Italian population. Forensic Sci Int. 2012;221:e1531\u20135.","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"1044_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1556-4029.2012.02294.x","volume":"58","author":"L Hackman","year":"2013","unstructured":"Hackman L, Black S. The reliability of the Greulich and Pyle atlas when applied to a modern Scottish population. J Forensic Sci. 2013;58:114\u20139.","journal-title":"J Forensic Sci"},{"key":"1044_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-014-1028-7","volume":"129","author":"D Zabet","year":"2015","unstructured":"Zabet D, R\u00e9rolle C, Pucheux J, Telmon N, Saint-Martin P. Can the Greulich and Pyle method be used on French contemporary individuals? Int J Legal Med. 2015;129:171\u20137.","journal-title":"Int J Legal Med"},{"key":"1044_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-016-4466-4","volume":"27","author":"K Chaumoitre","year":"2017","unstructured":"Chaumoitre K, Saliba-Serre B, Adalian P, Signoli M, Leonetti G, Panuel M. Forensic use of the Greulich and Pyle atlas: prediction intervals and relevance. Eur Radiol. 2017;27:1032\u201343.","journal-title":"Eur Radiol"},{"key":"1044_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-017-1760-x","volume":"132","author":"M Alcina","year":"2018","unstructured":"Alcina M, Lucea A, Salicr\u00fa M, Turb\u00f3n D. Reliability of the Greulich and Pyle method for chronological age estimation and age majority prediction in a Spanish sample. Int J Legal Med. 2018;132:1139\u201349.","journal-title":"Int J Legal Med"},{"key":"1044_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-019-06300-x","volume":"30","author":"K Alshamrani","year":"2020","unstructured":"Alshamrani K, Offiah AC. Applicability of two commonly used bone age assessment methods to twenty-first century UK children. Eur Radiol. 2020;30:504\u201313.","journal-title":"Eur Radiol"},{"key":"1044_CR37","unstructured":"Black S, Hackman L, Akram A, Cole T, Hammond S, Liversidge H, et al. Biological evaluation methods to assist in assessing the age of unaccompanied asylum-seeking children. Interim Age Estimation Science Advisory Committee; 2023."},{"key":"1044_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1177\/004947550003000109","volume":"30","author":"K Fleshman","year":"2000","unstructured":"Fleshman K. Bone age determination in a paediatric population as an indicator of nutritional status. Trop Doct. 2000;30:16\u20138.","journal-title":"Trop Doct"},{"key":"1044_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S74","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ejcn.1601008","volume":"54","author":"AB Jahari","year":"2000","unstructured":"Jahari AB, Haas J, Husaini MA, Pollitt E. Effects of an energy and micronutrient supplement on skeletal maturation in undernourished children in Indonesia. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2000;54:S74\u20139.","journal-title":"Eur J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"1044_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1159\/000313371","volume":"74","author":"K Chaumoitre","year":"2010","unstructured":"Chaumoitre K, Lamtali S, Baali A, Saliba-Serre B, Lahmam A, Aboussad A, et al. Influence of socioeconomic status and body mass index on bone age. Horm Res Paediatr. 2010;74:129\u201335.","journal-title":"Horm Res Paediatr"},{"key":"1044_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-005-0007-4","volume":"120","author":"A Schmeling","year":"2006","unstructured":"Schmeling A, Schulz R, Danner B, R\u00f6sing FW. The impact of economic progress and modernization in medicine on the ossification of hand and wrist. Int J Legal Med. 2006;120:121\u20136.","journal-title":"Int J Legal Med"},{"key":"1044_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1007\/s00247-019-04435-z","volume":"49","author":"TO Artioli","year":"2019","unstructured":"Artioli TO, Alvares MA, Carvalho Macedo VS, Silva TS, Avritchir R, Kochi C, et al. Bone age determination in eutrophic, overweight and obese Brazilian children and adolescents: a comparison between computerized BoneXpert and Greulich-Pyle methods. Pediatr Radiol. 2019;49:1185\u201391.","journal-title":"Pediatr Radiol"},{"key":"1044_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2011.238","volume":"36","author":"W Johnson","year":"2012","unstructured":"Johnson W, Stovitz SD, Choh AC, Czerwinski SA, Towne B, Demerath EW. Patterns of linear growth and skeletal maturation from birth to 18 years of age in overweight young adults. Int J Obes (Lond). 2012;36:535\u201341.","journal-title":"Int J Obes (Lond)"},{"key":"1044_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1302\/0301-620X.84B5.0840732","volume":"84\u2013B","author":"CP Lewis","year":"2002","unstructured":"Lewis CP, Lavy CBD, Harrison WJ. Delay in skeletal maturity in Malawian children. J Bone Joint Surg Br Volume. 2002;84\u2013B:732\u20134.","journal-title":"J Bone Joint Surg Br Volume"},{"key":"1044_CR45","unstructured":"Tanner JM, Healy MJR, Cameron N, Goldstein H. Assessment of skeletal maturity and prediction of adult height (TW3 Method). W.B. Saunders; 2001."},{"key":"1044_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2008.926067","volume":"28","author":"HH Thodberg","year":"2009","unstructured":"Thodberg HH, Kreiborg S, Juul A, Pedersen KD. The BoneXpert method for automated determination of skeletal maturity. IEEE Trans Med Imaging. 2009;28:52\u201366.","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Med Imaging"},{"key":"1044_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.4103\/1305-7456.156846","volume":"09","author":"OE Gungor","year":"2015","unstructured":"Gungor OE, Celikoglu M, Kale B, Gungor AY, Sari Z. The reliability of the Greulich and Pyle atlas when applied to a Southern Turkish population. Eur J Dent. 2015;09:251\u20134.","journal-title":"Eur J Dent"},{"key":"1044_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-010-0541-6","volume":"125","author":"M Tis\u00e8","year":"2011","unstructured":"Tis\u00e8 M, Mazzarini L, Fabrizzi G, Ferrante L, Giorgetti R, Tagliabracci A. Applicability of Greulich and Pyle method for age assessment in forensic practice on an Italian sample. Int J Legal Med. 2011;125:411\u20136.","journal-title":"Int J Legal Med"},{"key":"1044_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.legalmed.2008.01.003","volume":"10","author":"S Schmidt","year":"2008","unstructured":"Schmidt S, Koch B, Schulz R, Reisinger W, Schmeling A. Studies in use of the Greulich\u2013Pyle skeletal age method to assess criminal liability. Leg Med. 2008;10:190\u20135.","journal-title":"Leg Med"},{"key":"1044_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-008-0254-2","volume":"122","author":"A Schmeling","year":"2008","unstructured":"Schmeling A, Grundmann C, Fuhrmann A, Kaatsch H-J, Knell B, Ramsthaler F, et al. Criteria for age estimation in living individuals. Int J Legal Med. 2008;122:457\u201360.","journal-title":"Int J Legal Med"},{"key":"1044_CR51","unstructured":"Crawley H. When is a child not a child? Asylum, age disputes and the process of age assessment. Immigration Law Practitioners\u2019 Association (ILPA); 2007. Available from: https:\/\/ilpa.org.uk\/when-is-a-child-not-a-child-asylum-age-disputes-and-the-process-of-age-assessment\/"},{"key":"1044_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jofri.2019.02.001","volume":"16","author":"E Doyle","year":"2019","unstructured":"Doyle E, M\u00e1rquez-Grant N, Field L, Holmes T, Arthurs OJ, van Rijn RR, et al. Guidelines for best practice: imaging for age estimation in the living. J Forensic Radiol Imaging. 2019;16:38\u201349.","journal-title":"J Forensic Radiol Imaging"},{"key":"1044_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9655.13989","volume":"29","author":"V Panci","year":"2023","unstructured":"Panci V, Hackman L. Forensic age Estimation of living individuals: a novel bibliometric approach to the literature review. J Roy Anthropol Inst. 2023;29:50\u201374.","journal-title":"J Roy Anthropol Inst"},{"key":"1044_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)05379-X","volume":"358","author":"A Schmeling","year":"2001","unstructured":"Schmeling A, Olze A, Reisinger W, Geserick G. Age Estimation of living people undergoing criminal proceedings. Lancet. 2001;358:89\u201390.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"1044_CR55","unstructured":"Ministry of Justice. Legal age of marriage in England and Wales rises to 18. GOV.UK. 2023 [cited 2024 Aug 6]. Available from: https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/news\/legal-age-of-marriage-in-england-and-wales-rises-to-18"},{"key":"1044_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1525\/nclr.2014.17.1.23","volume":"17","author":"B Carpenter","year":"2014","unstructured":"Carpenter B, O\u2019Brien E, Hayes S, Death J, Harm. Responsibility, age, and consent. New Criminal Law Rev. 2014;17:23\u201354.","journal-title":"New Criminal Law Rev"},{"key":"1044_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scijus.2014.12.003","volume":"55","author":"S Schmidt","year":"2015","unstructured":"Schmidt S, Vieth V, Timme M, Dvorak J, Schmeling A. Examination of ossification of the distal radial epiphysis using magnetic resonance imaging. New insights for age estimation in young footballers in FIFA tournaments. Sci Justice. 2015;55:139\u201344.","journal-title":"Sci Justice"},{"key":"1044_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-016-1456-7","volume":"131","author":"M Timme","year":"2017","unstructured":"Timme M, Steinacker JM, Schmeling A. Age Estimation in competitive sports. Int J Legal Med. 2017;131:225\u201333.","journal-title":"Int J Legal Med"},{"key":"1044_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2006.033431","volume":"41","author":"J Dvorak","year":"2007","unstructured":"Dvorak J, George J, Junge A, Hodler J. Application of MRI of the wrist for age determination in international U-17 soccer competitions. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41:497\u2013500.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1044_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1080\/17544750.2013.816752","volume":"7","author":"MM Yang","year":"2014","unstructured":"Yang MM. Guilty without trial: state-sponsored cheating and the 2008 Beijing olympic women\u2019s gymnastics competition. Chin J Communication. 2014;7:80\u2013105.","journal-title":"Chin J Communication"},{"key":"1044_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1454","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0000000000000391","volume":"28","author":"RS Lloyd","year":"2014","unstructured":"Lloyd RS, Oliver JL, Faigenbaum AD, Myer GD, De Ste Croix MBA. Chronological age vs. Biological maturation: implications for exercise programming in youth. J Strength Conditioning Res. 2014;28:1454.","journal-title":"J Strength Conditioning Res"},{"key":"1044_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2021.09.032","volume":"40","author":"R Kawakami","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kawakami R, Miyachi M, Tanisawa K, Ito T, Usui C, Midorikawa T, et al. Development and validation of a simple anthropometric equation to predict appendicular skeletal muscle mass. Clin Nutr. 2021;40:5523\u201330.","journal-title":"Clin Nutr"},{"key":"1044_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2008.05.005","volume":"179","author":"N Lynnerup","year":"2008","unstructured":"Lynnerup N, Belard E, Buch-Olsen K, Sejrsen B, Damgaard-Pedersen K. Intra- and interobserver error of the Greulich\u2013Pyle method as used on a Danish forensic sample. Forensic Sci Int. 2008;179:e2421\u20136.","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"1044_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1007\/s00247-019-04379-4","volume":"49","author":"L-S Ording M\u00fcller","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ording M\u00fcller L-S, Offiah A, Adamsbaum C, Barber I, Di Paolo PL, Humphries P, et al. Bone age for chronological age determination \u2014 statement of the European Society of Paediatric Radiology Musculoskeletal Taskforce group. Pediatr Radiol. 2019;49:979\u201382.","journal-title":"Pediatr Radiol"},{"key":"1044_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2006.031021","volume":"41","author":"J Dvorak","year":"2007","unstructured":"Dvorak J, George J, Junge A, Hodler J. Age determination by magnetic resonance imaging of the wrist in adolescent male football players. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41:45\u201352.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1044_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2008.08.018","volume":"154","author":"KM Khan","year":"2009","unstructured":"Khan KM, Miller BS, Hoggard E, Somani A, Sarafoglou K. Application of ultrasound for bone age estimation in clinical practice. J Pediatr. 2009;154:243\u20137.","journal-title":"J Pediatr"},{"key":"1044_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1007\/s00247-004-1385-3","volume":"35","author":"H-J Mentzel","year":"2005","unstructured":"Mentzel H-J, Vilser C, Eulenstein M, Schwartz T, Vogt S, B\u00f6ttcher J, et al. Assessment of skeletal age at the wrist in children with a new ultrasound device. Pediatr Radiol. 2005;35:429\u201333.","journal-title":"Pediatr Radiol"},{"key":"1044_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1002\/jmri.24286","volume":"39","author":"E Tomei","year":"2014","unstructured":"Tomei E, Sartori A, Nissman D, Al Ansari N, Battisti S, Rubini A, et al. Value of MRI of the hand and the wrist in evaluation of bone age: preliminary results. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2014;39:1198\u2013205.","journal-title":"J Magn Reson Imaging"},{"key":"1044_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2018.01.007","volume":"284","author":"M Benito","year":"2018","unstructured":"Benito M, Mu\u00f1oz A, Beltr\u00e1n I, Labajo E, Perea B, S\u00e1nchez JA. Assessment of adulthood in the living Spanish population based on ossification of the medial clavicle epiphysis using ultrasound methods. Forensic Sci Int. 2018;284:161\u20136.","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"1044_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2363","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-021-02661-5","volume":"135","author":"D M\u00f6bius","year":"2021","unstructured":"M\u00f6bius D, Fitzek A, Hammer N, Heinemann A, Ron A, Sch\u00e4dler J, et al. Ultrasound in legal medicine\u2014a missed opportunity or simply too late? A narrative review of ultrasonic applications in forensic contexts. Int J Legal Med. 2021;135:2363\u201383.","journal-title":"Int J Legal Med"},{"key":"1044_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-015-1161-y","volume":"129","author":"S Serinelli","year":"2015","unstructured":"Serinelli S, Panebianco V, Martino M, Battisti S, Rodacki K, Marinelli E, et al. Accuracy of MRI skeletal age Estimation for subjects 12\u201319. Potential use for subjects of unknown age. Int J Legal Med. 2015;129:609\u201317.","journal-title":"Int J Legal Med"},{"key":"1044_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.2307\/1129868","volume":"54","author":"B Bogin","year":"1983","unstructured":"Bogin B, MacVean RB. The relationship of socioeconomic status and sex to body size, skeletal maturation, and cognitive status of Guatemala City schoolchildren. Child Dev. 1983;54:115.","journal-title":"Child Dev"},{"key":"1044_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaging.2016.06.006","volume":"39","author":"T K\u00fcpper","year":"2016","unstructured":"K\u00fcpper T. Age mimicry. A perspective on the young-old. J Aging Stud. 2016;39:121\u20138.","journal-title":"J Aging Stud"},{"key":"1044_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4407","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-023-10543-0","volume":"34","author":"D Gr\u00e4fe","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gr\u00e4fe D, Beeskow AB, Pf\u00e4ffle R, Rosolowski M, Chung TS, DiFranco MD. Automated bone age assessment in a German pediatric cohort: agreement between an artificial intelligence software and the manual Greulich and Pyle method. Eur Radiol. 2024;34:4407\u201313.","journal-title":"Eur Radiol"},{"key":"1044_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1449","DOI":"10.1007\/s00256-020-03429-5","volume":"49","author":"M Gerges","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gerges M, Eng H, Chhina H, Cooper A. Modernization of bone age assessment: comparing the accuracy and reliability of an artificial intelligence algorithm and shorthand bone age to Greulich and Pyle. Skeletal Radiol. 2020;49:1449\u201357.","journal-title":"Skeletal Radiol"}],"container-title":["Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s12024-025-01044-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s12024-025-01044-1","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s12024-025-01044-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T12:50:30Z","timestamp":1781614230000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s12024-025-01044-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1044"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12024-025-01044-1","relation":{},"ISSN":["1556-2891"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1556-2891","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"7 July 2025","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 August 2025","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}]}}