{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T10:33:18Z","timestamp":1793010798309,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792972800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792972800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["ERA Forum"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The rapid development of generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) is widely expected to transform professional practices across multiple sectors, including the legal profession. This article critically examines the growing integration of GenAI tools into legal work and the implications this development carries for professional competence, ethical responsibility, and the broader institutional structure of legal practice. While AI promises substantial gains in efficiency by automating tasks such as legal research, document drafting, information retrieval, and data analysis, their adoption also raises significant concerns regarding reliability, transparency, confidentiality, and professional accountability. While prevailing narratives surrounding AI adoption in law often frame technological integration as both inevitable and normatively desirable, emphasising efficiency and competitive advantage while downplaying potential risks and value conflicts, the increasing delegation of professional tasks to algorithmic systems challenges traditional understandings of legal expertise, particularly in relation to judgement, reasoning, and professional autonomy. Moreover, unequal access to advanced AI tools and proprietary datasets may reinforce structural inequalities within the legal market, benefitting larger firms while disadvantaging smaller practices. This article argues for a balanced approach that combines technological literacy with strong ethical frameworks and institutional safeguards. Ultimately, responsible integration of GenAI requires sustained human oversight and collective professional engagement to ensure that technological innovation supports, rather than undermines, the core values of legal practice.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s12027-026-00902-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T09:42:12Z","timestamp":1793007732000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Generative AI and legal practice: a complicated relationship"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"given":"Julija","family":"Kalpokien\u0117","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"902_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1177\/29768640251370968","volume":"1","author":"A. Akbari","year":"2025","unstructured":"Akbari, A.: Big tech authoritarianism: political synergies of an emerging power. Dialogues Digit. Soc. 1(3), 317\u2013321 (2025)","journal-title":"Dialogues Digit. Soc."},{"key":"902_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"An, T.: AI as cognitive amplifier: rethinking human judgment in the age of generative AI (2025). arXiv. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2512.10961","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2512.10961"},{"key":"902_CR3","first-page":"323","volume":"48","author":"R. Artigliere","year":"2025","unstructured":"Artigliere, R., Losey, R.C.: The future is now: why trial lawyers and judges should embrace generative AI now and how to do it safely and productively. Am. J. Trial Advocacy 48, 323\u2013362 (2025)","journal-title":"Am. J. Trial Advocacy"},{"key":"902_CR4","first-page":"8","volume":"November","author":"T. Askeroth","year":"2023","unstructured":"Askeroth, T., Granda, M.: Ethics and AI. Nev. Lawyer November, 8\u201310 (2023)","journal-title":"Nev. Lawyer"},{"key":"902_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/29768624261417047","volume":"3","author":"I. Chaar L\u00f3pez","year":"2026","unstructured":"Chaar L\u00f3pez, I., Garcia Gorra, O.: Cruel optimization: people analytics and platforms of care. Platforms Soc. 3, 1\u201315 (2026)","journal-title":"Platforms Soc."},{"issue":"2","key":"902_CR6","first-page":"1","volume":"15","author":"M. Chang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Chang, M.: Ethical lawyering in the age of generative AI. Seattle J. Technol. Environ. Innov. Law 15(2), 1\u201324 (2025)","journal-title":"Seattle J. Technol. Environ. Innov. Law"},{"issue":"1","key":"902_CR7","first-page":"65","volume":"27","author":"A. Conley","year":"2025","unstructured":"Conley, A.: Understanding the duty of competence for attorneys using generative AI. N.C. J. Law Technol. 27(1), 65\u201390 (2025)","journal-title":"N.C. J. Law Technol."},{"issue":"2","key":"902_CR8","first-page":"1","volume":"15","author":"F. Contini","year":"2024","unstructured":"Contini, F.: Unboxing generative AI for the legal professions: functions, impacts and governance. Int. J. Court Adm. 15(2), 1\u201322 (2024)","journal-title":"Int. J. Court Adm."},{"key":"902_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-658-42525-8_10","volume-title":"Economy, Society and Politics: Socio-Economic and Political Education in Schools and Universities","author":"U. Dannemann","year":"2024","unstructured":"Dannemann, U.: Understanding neoliberal subjectification: the contemporary homo economicus in the context of socio-economic education. In: Fridrich, C., et al. (eds.) Economy, Society and Politics: Socio-Economic and Political Education in Schools and Universities, pp.\u00a0217\u2013236. Springer, Cham (2024)"},{"key":"902_CR10","first-page":"149","volume":"20","author":"B. Davies","year":"2025","unstructured":"Davies, B.: Ethics in artificial intelligence and alternative dispute resolution: generating AI\/human reviewed ethical guidelines for ADR practitioners and the legal profession. Univ. Mass. Law Rev. 20, 149\u2013190 (2025)","journal-title":"Univ. Mass. Law Rev."},{"key":"902_CR11","first-page":"23","volume-title":"Rethinking Neoliberalism: Resisting the Disciplinary Regime","author":"M. Dean","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dean, M.: The secret life of neoliberal subjectivity. In: Schram, S.F., Pavlovskaya, M. (eds.) Rethinking Neoliberalism: Resisting the Disciplinary Regime, pp.\u00a023\u201340. Routledge, London (2018)"},{"key":"902_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003309529","volume-title":"Technological Unemployment, Basic Income, and Well-Being","author":"F. D\u2019Orlando","year":"2023","unstructured":"D\u2019Orlando, F.: Technological Unemployment, Basic Income, and Well-Being. Routledge, London (2023)"},{"key":"902_CR13","first-page":"209","volume":"79","author":"J.M. Garron","year":"2023","unstructured":"Garron, J.M.: Ethics 3.0 \u2013 attorney responsibility in the age of generative AI. Bus. Lawyer 79, 209\u2013220 (2023)","journal-title":"Bus. Lawyer"},{"key":"902_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-025-00930-2","volume":"6","author":"L. Gazit","year":"2026","unstructured":"Gazit, L.: Constitutive knowledge sources: an institutional approach to epistemic trust in opaque AI systems. AI Ethics 6, 1\u201315 (2026)","journal-title":"AI Ethics"},{"issue":"3","key":"902_CR15","first-page":"615","volume":"19","author":"E. Houghton","year":"2019","unstructured":"Houghton, E.: Becoming a neoliberal subject. Ephemera, Theory Polit. Organ. 19(3), 615\u2013626 (2019)","journal-title":"Ephemera, Theory Polit. Organ."},{"key":"902_CR16","volume-title":"Societies at an AI Crossroads: Choices and Value Conflicts","author":"I. Kalpokas","year":"2026","unstructured":"Kalpokas, I., Kalpokien\u0117, J.: Societies at an AI Crossroads: Choices and Value Conflicts. Routledge, London (2026)"},{"key":"902_CR17","unstructured":"Kim, M.: Is the Pentagon allowed to surveil Americans with AI? MIT Technology Review (March 6). https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/2026\/03\/06\/1134012\/is-the-pentagon-allowed-to-surveil-americans-with-ai\/. Accessed 12 March 2026"},{"issue":"2","key":"902_CR18","first-page":"331","volume":"61","author":"D. King","year":"2025","unstructured":"King, D.: How to retain being a human lawyer while using generative AI. Calif. West. Law Rev. 61(2), 331\u2013351 (2025)","journal-title":"Calif. West. Law Rev."},{"issue":"3","key":"902_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1080\/10383441.2025.2493493","volume":"33","author":"M. Legg","year":"2024","unstructured":"Legg, M.: Better than a bot: instilling ethical judgement into the lawyers of the future in the age of AI. Griffith Law Rev. 33(3), 273\u2013293 (2024)","journal-title":"Griffith Law Rev."},{"issue":"1","key":"902_CR20","first-page":"51","volume":"5","author":"E. Longo","year":"2024","unstructured":"Longo, E.: Justice and generative AI: the constitutional challenges. Eur. Rev. Digit. Adm. Law 5(1), 51\u201377 (2024)","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Digit. Adm. Law"},{"issue":"3","key":"902_CR21","first-page":"513","volume":"50","author":"L.A. Lorek","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lorek, L.A.: AI legal innovations: the benefits and drawbacks of Chat-GPT and generative AI in the legal industry. Ohio North. Univ. Law Rev. 50(3), 513\u2013531 (2024)","journal-title":"Ohio North. Univ. Law Rev."},{"key":"902_CR22","first-page":"1","volume":"1","author":"C. McKinney","year":"2026","unstructured":"McKinney, C.: Ethics of artificial intelligence for lawyers: I\u2019m sorry Dave, I\u2019m afraid I can\u2019t do that: competence, confidentiality, and communication. Ark. Law Notes 1, 1\u201312 (2026)","journal-title":"Ark. Law Notes"},{"key":"902_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1007\/s11528-025-01156-z","volume":"69","author":"P. Mishra","year":"2025","unstructured":"Mishra, P., Henriksen, D.: The curiosity paradox: how sycophantic GenAI may undermine learning. TechTrends 69, 1127\u20131133 (2025)","journal-title":"TechTrends"},{"key":"902_CR24","first-page":"19","volume":"2","author":"T.V. Nguyen","year":"2026","unstructured":"Nguyen, T.V.: Artificial intelligence and the transformation of legal practice: from automation to augmented lawyering. Manag. Res. Q. 2, 19\u201327 (2026)","journal-title":"Manag. Res. Q."},{"issue":"1","key":"902_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1017\/S147474641700046X","volume":"18","author":"R. Peeters","year":"2019","unstructured":"Peeters, R.: Manufacturing responsibility: the governmentality of behavioural power in social policies. Soc. Policy Soc. 18(1), 51\u201365 (2019)","journal-title":"Soc. Policy Soc."},{"issue":"2","key":"902_CR26","first-page":"361","volume":"80","author":"H.H. Perritt","year":"2026","unstructured":"Perritt, H.H.: Adaptable AI apprentices: law practice sidekicks. Univ. Miami Law Rev. 80(2), 361\u2013456 (2026)","journal-title":"Univ. Miami Law Rev."},{"issue":"1","key":"902_CR27","first-page":"71","volume":"61","author":"E. Pott","year":"2025","unstructured":"Pott, E.: Incorporating generative artificial intelligence into the practice of law: utilizing generative AI within the framework of the California rules of professional conduct. Calif. West. Law Rev. 61(1), 71\u201383 (2025)","journal-title":"Calif. West. Law Rev."},{"issue":"2","key":"902_CR28","first-page":"193","volume":"59","author":"J. Regalia","year":"2024","unstructured":"Regalia, J.: From briefs to bytes: how generative AI is transforming legal writing and practice. Tulsa Law Rev. 59(2), 193\u2013252 (2024)","journal-title":"Tulsa Law Rev."},{"issue":"4","key":"902_CR29","first-page":"1129","volume":"48","author":"L. Robb","year":"2025","unstructured":"Robb, L., et al.: \u2018It\u2019s the end of the world as we know it\u2019: generative artificial intelligence and the changing landscape of legal practice and education. Univ. N. S. W. Law J. 48(4), 1129\u20131165 (2025)","journal-title":"Univ. N. S. W. Law J."},{"key":"902_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Scholten, I., et\u00a0al.: Model collapse is not a bug but a feature in machine unlearning for LLMs (2026). arXiv. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2507.04219","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2507.04219"},{"key":"902_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-07566-y","volume":"631","author":"I. Shumailov","year":"2024","unstructured":"Shumailov, I., et al.: AI models collapse when trained on recursively generated data. Nature 631, 755\u2013759 (2024)","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"902_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1017\/dap.2024.53","volume":"6","author":"D.U. Socol de la Osa","year":"2024","unstructured":"Socol de la Osa, D.U., Remolina, N.: Artificial intelligence at the bench: legal and ethical challenges of informing \u2013 or misinforming \u2013 judicial decision-making through generative AI. Data Policy 6, 1\u201330 (2024)","journal-title":"Data Policy"},{"key":"902_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-16-2838-2","volume-title":"Platform Business Models: Frameworks, Concepts and Design","author":"R. Srinivasan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Srinivasan, R.: Platform Business Models: Frameworks, Concepts and Design. Springer, Cham (2021)"},{"key":"902_CR34","volume-title":"Platform Capitalism","author":"N. Srnicek","year":"2017","unstructured":"Srnicek, N.: Platform Capitalism. Polity Press, Cambridge and Malden (2017)"},{"key":"902_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780197579329.013.42","volume-title":"The Oxford Handbook of AI Governance","author":"D. Susskind","year":"2022","unstructured":"Susskind, D.: Technological unemployment. In: Bullock, J.B., et al. (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of AI Governance, pp.\u00a0641\u2013659. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2022)"},{"key":"902_CR36","first-page":"315","volume":"56","author":"B.R. Syroka","year":"2025","unstructured":"Syroka, B.R.: You just can\u2019t beat the machine: a lawyer\u2019s duty to adapt in the age of artificial intelligence. Univ. Toledo Law Rev. 56, 315\u2013334 (2025)","journal-title":"Univ. Toledo Law Rev."},{"issue":"3","key":"902_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1017\/S1744552325000047","volume":"21","author":"K. Terzidou","year":"2025","unstructured":"Terzidou, K.: Generative AI systems in legal practice offering quality legal services while upholding legal ethics. Int. J. Law Context 21(3), 431\u2013452 (2025)","journal-title":"Int. J. Law Context"},{"key":"902_CR38","unstructured":"Tillipman, J.: Military AI policy by contract: the limits of procurement as Governance. Lawfare (Marh 10) (2026). https:\/\/www.lawfaremedia.org\/article\/military-ai-policy-by-contract--the-limits-of-procurement-as-governance. Accessed 12 March 2026"},{"issue":"2","key":"902_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.21552\/aire\/2024\/2\/5","volume":"1","author":"M.B. Unver","year":"2024","unstructured":"Unver, M.B., Roddeck, L.: Ethics governance of AI for the legal sector: building up a holistic policy approach. J. AI Law Regul. 1(2), 177\u2013198 (2024)","journal-title":"J. AI Law Regul."},{"key":"902_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Vu, K., Rohman, I.K., Bohlin, E.: Promoting the adoption of digital technology: strategic policy insights from a network effects model. Telecommun. Policy 48(10) (2024). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.telpol.2024.102852","DOI":"10.1016\/j.telpol.2024.102852"},{"key":"902_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wherry, J.L., DeLaurentis, F.C.: Becoming our best: professional identity formation as a pathway to lawyering excellence in the age of generative AI. University of Baltimore School of Law Legal Studies Research Paper Series (2026). https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5797742#","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.5797742"},{"key":"902_CR42","first-page":"85","volume":"15","author":"S. Wolfs","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wolfs, S.: Objection! Use of AI! Evaluating the role of generative artificial intelligence in litigation: risks and regulations. Maastricht J. Lib. Arts 15, 85\u201396 (2024)","journal-title":"Maastricht J. Lib. Arts"},{"key":"902_CR43","unstructured":"Wong, M.: OpenAI is opening the door to government spying. The Atlantic (March 6) (2026). https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/technology\/2026\/03\/openai-pentagon-contract-spying\/686282\/. Accessed 12 March 2026"},{"key":"902_CR44","unstructured":"Zeff, M.: OpenAI had banned military use. The Pentagon tested its models through Microsoft anyway. Wired (March 5) (2026). https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/openai-defense-department-ban-military-use-microsoft\/. Accessed 12 March 2026"}],"container-title":["ERA Forum"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s12027-026-00902-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s12027-026-00902-x","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s12027-026-00902-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T09:42:17Z","timestamp":1793007737000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s12027-026-00902-x"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]]},"references-count":44,"alternative-id":["902"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12027-026-00902-x","relation":{},"ISSN":["1612-3093","1863-9038"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1612-3093","type":"print"},{"value":"1863-9038","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]]},"assertion":[{"value":"26 June 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 October 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"26 October 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The author declares no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}]}}