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Agmatine efficacy was assessed thruogh proliferation, migration, and invasion assays at various concentrations. The apoptotic index was determined using apoptosis-related markers (\n                    <jats:italic>Bax<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>Bcl-2<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>Csp-3<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) via apoptosis assays, quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), and Western blot analysis. Expression levels of the\n                    <jats:italic>ABCG2<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>ABCB1<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and\n                    <jats:italic>ABCC1<\/jats:italic>\n                    genes were measured by qRT-PCR in agmatine-treated Caco-2 cells. Oxidative stress markers, including glutathione peroxidase (\n                    <jats:italic>GPx<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) and catalase (\n                    <jats:italic>CAT<\/jats:italic>\n                    ), were evaluated by qRT-PCR. Cell viability analysis revealed that agmatine exerted its most pronounced effects at 72\u00a0h, with significant reductions at concentrations of 6, 7.3, and 9 mM in Caco-2 cells and 6, 6.25, and 9 mM in L929 cells (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.05). At these concentrations, migration and invasion assays showed dose-dependent decreases in cell motility and invasiveness in Caco-2 cells. Apoptosis analysis demonstrated a significant increase in the apoptotic index with rising agmatine concentrations. Significant decreases in\n                    <jats:italic>GPx<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>CAT<\/jats:italic>\n                    were observed in all three agmatine-treated Caco-2 groups compared to untreated controls (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.01). However, the expression levels of\n                    <jats:italic>ABCG2<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>ABCB1<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and\n                    <jats:italic>ABCC1<\/jats:italic>\n                    showed no significant changes following agmatine treatment (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&gt;\u20090.05). These findings indicate that agmatine exerts antiproliferative, anti-migratory, anti-invasive, and pro-apoptotic effects in Caco-2 colon cancer cells, potentially through the modulation of apoptosis- and oxidative stress\u2013related pathways. The lack of significant impacts on\n                    <jats:italic>ABC<\/jats:italic>\n                    transporter gene expression suggests that agmatine may be a promising candidate molecule for further translational studies in colorectal cancer.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s12032-026-03258-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]],"date-time":"2026-01-20T08:12:53Z","timestamp":1768896773000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Evaluation of agmatine\u2019s anti-cancer efficacy in Caco-2 colorectal adenocarcinoma cells"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"43","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0909-8935","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Esra Guzel","family":"Tanoglu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-6505-1576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammed Said","family":"Gokce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2647-9879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miray","family":"Karamese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4803-9479","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sevde","family":"Altuntas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7899-535X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahsen Merve","family":"Bayrak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7477-6640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alpaslan","family":"Tanoglu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]]},"reference":[{"issue":"7","key":"3258_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v30.i7.644","volume":"30","author":"M Pinheiro","year":"2024","unstructured":"Pinheiro M, Moreira DN, Ghidini M. 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