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Given limited data on mycotoxin exposure among Namibian children, this study investigated mycotoxin types and levels in foods, evaluated dietary mycotoxin exposure from processed cereal foods in children under age five from rural households in Oshana region, Namibia. Mycotoxins in cereal-based food samples (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u2009162) (<jats:italic>mahangu<\/jats:italic> flour (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u200935), sorghum flour (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u200913), <jats:italic>mahangu<\/jats:italic> thin\/thick porridge (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u200954), <jats:italic>oshikundu<\/jats:italic> (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u200956), and <jats:italic>omungome<\/jats:italic> (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20094)) were determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Aflatoxin B<jats:sub>1<\/jats:sub> (AFB<jats:sub>1<\/jats:sub>, 35.8%), zearalenone (27.2%), fumonisin B<jats:sub>1<\/jats:sub> (FB<jats:sub>1<\/jats:sub>, 24.1%), citrinin (CIT, 12.4%) and deoxynivalenol (10.5%) were the major mycotoxins quantified. Food samples (35.8% (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u200958) and 6.2% (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u200910)) exceeded the 0.1\u00a0\u00b5g\/kg AFB<jats:sub>1<\/jats:sub> and 200\u00a0\u00b5g\/kg FB<jats:sub>1<\/jats:sub> EU limit for children\u2019s food, respectively. Several emerging mycotoxins including the neurotoxic 3-nitropropionic acid, moniliformin (MON), and tenuazonic acid were quantified in over 50% of all samples. Co-occurrence of AFB<jats:sub>1<\/jats:sub>, CIT, and FB<jats:sub>1<\/jats:sub> detected in 4.9% (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20098) samples, which could heighten food safety concerns. Regarding exposure assessment and risk characterization, average probable dietary intake for AFB<jats:sub>1<\/jats:sub> from all ready-to-eat-foods was 0.036\u00a0\u00b5g\/kg bw\/day, which resulted in margin of exposures (<jats:italic>MOE<\/jats:italic>) of 11 and 0.65 risk cancer cases\/year\/100,000 people, indicating a risk of chronic aflatoxicosis. High tolerable daily intake values for FB<jats:sub>1<\/jats:sub>, and <jats:italic>MOE<\/jats:italic> for beauvericin and MON exceeded reference values. Consumption of a diversified diet and interventions including timely planting and harvesting, best grain storage, and other standard postharvest food handling practices are needed to mitigate mycotoxin exposure through contaminated cereal foods and to safeguard the health of the rural children in Namibia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s12550-024-00580-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,14]],"date-time":"2025-01-14T06:13:18Z","timestamp":1736835198000},"page":"249-265","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Mycotoxin exposure through the consumption of processed cereal food for children (&lt;\u20095\u00a0years old) from rural households of Oshana, a region of Namibia"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"41","author":[{"given":"Maria A.","family":"Angula","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anthony","family":"Ishola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muvari","family":"Tjiurutue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Sulyok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rudolf","family":"Krska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chibundu N.","family":"Ezekiel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jane","family":"Misihairabgwi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"580_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1179\/027249304225013420","volume":"24","author":"YM Abdulrazzaq","year":"2004","unstructured":"Abdulrazzaq YM, Osman N, Yousif ZM, Trad O (2004) Morbidity in neonates of mothers who have ingested aflatoxins. 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