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As these are de-identified, publicly accessible databases, this secondary utilization of data adheres to their respective data portal policies and was exempt from further institutional informed consent. All animal experiments was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Approval number: TCM-LAEC2024094w0929). The study was conducted in strict adherence to the local legislation and institutional policies for animal welfare. As stipulated by the ethics committee, the maximal permitted tumor burden was defined as a 20% increase in any body dimension or a 10% loss of body weight. To proactively adhere to this endpoint and ensure animal welfare, tumor growth was monitored twice weekly, and mice were humanely euthanized once the tumor volume approached approximately 1500 mm\n                      3\n                      , a threshold that, in our model, reliably precedes the onset of the ethical limits. Consequently, no animal reached the formal ethical limits, and all measured tumor volumes remained below 1500 mm\n                      3\n                      , ensuring that no animal experienced significant pain, weight loss, or physiological distress. For human cell lines (PC3, DU145, and BPH-1), they were obtained from a commercial source (Procell Life Science & Technology Co., Ltd.), which maintains donor informed consent, thus, further institutional ethical approval for cell use was waived. Not applicable. This study did not involve direct recruitment of human participants. All human-derived data were obtained from publicly available databases (TCGA and MSKCC), which had obtained appropriate informed consent from the original study participants. The human cell lines used were commercially obtained with donor informed consent maintained by the supplier.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable. This manuscript does not contain any individual person\u2019s data in any form (including individual details, images, or videos) that would require consent for publication.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"825"}}