{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T01:37:32Z","timestamp":1793324252977,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"Duke University Press","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,11]],"date-time":"2017-09-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1505088000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The steep rise in U.S. criminal punishment in recent decades has spurred scholarship on the collateral consequences of imprisonment for individuals, families, and communities. Several excellent studies have estimated the number of people who have been incarcerated and the collateral consequences they face, but far less is known about the size and scope of the total U.S. population with felony convictions beyond prison walls, including those who serve their sentences on probation or in jail. This article develops state-level estimates based on demographic life tables and extends previous national estimates of the number of people with felony convictions to 2010. We estimate that 3\u00a0% of the total U.S. adult population and 15\u00a0% of the African American adult male population has ever been to prison; people with felony convictions account for 8\u00a0% of all adults and 33\u00a0% of the African American adult male population. We discuss the far-reaching consequences of the spatial concentration and immense growth of these groups since 1980.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s13524-017-0611-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,11]],"date-time":"2017-09-11T18:32:46Z","timestamp":1505154766000},"page":"1795-1818","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":233,"title":["The Growth, Scope, and Spatial Distribution of People With Felony Records in the United States, 1948\u20132010"],"prefix":"10.1215","volume":"54","author":[{"given":"Sarah K. S.","family":"Shannon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, University of Georgia, 113 Baldwin Hall, Athens, GA 30602, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher","family":"Uggen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jason","family":"Schnittker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melissa","family":"Thompson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, Portland State University, Portland, OR, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Wakefield","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Criminal Justice, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Massoglia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"73","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.1995.tb00338.x","article-title":"Local indicators of spatial autocorrelation\u2013\u2014LISA","volume":"27","author":"Anselin","year":"1995","journal-title":"Geographical Analysis"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1177\/1462474506059138","article-title":"The politics of punishing: Building a state governance theory of American imprisonment variation","volume":"8","author":"Barker","year":"2006","journal-title":"Punishment & Society"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR3","volume-title":"Recidivism of prisoners released in 1983","author":"Beck","year":"1989"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.2006.00044.x","article-title":"Race, drugs, and policing: Understanding disparities in drug delivery arrests","volume":"44","author":"Beckett","year":"2006","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1177\/14624740122228249","article-title":"Governing social marginality: Welfare, incarceration, and the transformation of state policy","volume":"3","author":"Beckett","year":"2001","journal-title":"Punishment & Society"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1086\/378647","article-title":"Ballot manipulation and the \u201cmenace of Negro domination\u201d: Racial threat and felon disenfranchisement in the United States, 1850\u20132002","volume":"109","author":"Behrens","year":"2003","journal-title":"American Journal of Sociology"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR7","volume-title":"Prevalence of imprisonment in the U.S. population, 1974\u20132001","author":"Bonczar","year":"2003"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1177\/0011128713514801","article-title":"Demographic patterns of cumulative arrest prevalence by ages 18 and 23","volume":"60","author":"Brame","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crime & Delinquency"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2010-3710","article-title":"Cumulative prevalence of arrest from ages 8\u201323 in a national sample","volume":"129","author":"Brame","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.2307\/2657267","article-title":"Racial disparities in official assessments of juvenile offenders: Attributional stereotypes as mediating mechanisms","volume":"63","author":"Bridges","year":"1998","journal-title":"American Sociological Review"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR11","volume-title":"Prisoners in 2012","author":"Carson","year":"2013"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR12","volume-title":"Imprisoning communities","author":"Clear","year":"2007"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR13","volume-title":"The punishment imperative","author":"Clear","year":"2014"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR14","volume-title":"Spatial autocorrelation","author":"Cliff","year":"1973"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119115151","volume-title":"Statistics for spatial data","author":"Cressie","year":"1993"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9133.2010.00681.x","article-title":"Overview of \u201cImprisonment and crime: Can both be reduced?\u201d","volume":"10","author":"Durlauf","year":"2011","journal-title":"Criminology & Public Policy"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR17","volume-title":"Recidivism of prisoners released in 30 states in 2005: Patterns from 2005 to 2010","author":"Durose","year":"2014"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781316471029","volume-title":"Incarceration nation: How the United States became the most punitive democracy in the world","author":"Enns","year":"2016"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR19","first-page":"83","article-title":"The collateral effects of imprisonment on prisoners, their families, and communities","volume-title":"The Oxford handbook on sentencing and corrections","author":"Ewald","year":"2012"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01112.x","article-title":"The new penology: Notes on the emerging strategy of corrections and its implications","volume":"30","author":"Feeley","year":"1992","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR21","volume-title":"Domestic migration across regions, divisions, and states: 1995 to 2000","author":"Franklin","year":"2003"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4135\/9781446221228","volume-title":"Mass imprisonment: Social causes and consequences","author":"Garland","year":"2001"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226190174.001.0001","volume-title":"The culture of control: Crime and social order in contemporary society","author":"Garland","year":"2001"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR24","volume-title":"Probation and parole in the United States, 2010","author":"Glaze","year":"2011"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.18574\/nyu\/9781479894666.001.0001","volume-title":"Deported: Immigrant policing, disposable labor, and global capitalism","author":"Golash-Boza","year":"2015"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.2001.tb00935.x","article-title":"State prison populations and their growth, 1971\u20131991","volume":"39","author":"Greenberg","year":"2001","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR27","volume-title":"Prisoners in 2010","author":"Guerino","year":"2012"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511623356","volume-title":"Spatial data analysis in the social and environmental sciences","author":"Haining","year":"1990"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/0047-2352(80)90059-8","article-title":"Reporting recidivism rates: The criterion and follow-up issues","volume":"8","author":"Hoffman","year":"1980","journal-title":"Journal of Criminal Justice"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1006\/ssre.2000.0686","article-title":"Toward a political sociology of punishment: Politics and changes in the incarcerated population","volume":"30","author":"Jacobs","year":"2001","journal-title":"Social Science Research"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1086\/597102","article-title":"The effects of male incarceration dynamics on AIDS infection rates among African-American women and men","volume":"52","author":"Johnson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Law and Economics"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR32","unstructured":"Justice Mapping Center. (2010). Justice atlas of sentencing and corrections [Data]. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.justiceatlas.org\/"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR33","volume-title":"Correctional populations in the United States, 2014","author":"Kaeble","year":"2015"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR34","volume-title":"Probation and parole in the United States, 2014","author":"Kaeble","year":"2015"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1353\/dem.2008.0011","article-title":"The neighborhood context of racial and ethnic disparities in arrest","volume":"45","author":"Kirk","year":"2008","journal-title":"Demography"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021012716485733300_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1177\/1536504216628841","article-title":"Digital punishment\u2019s tangled web","volume":"15","author":"Lageson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Contexts"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR37","volume-title":"Recidivism of felons on probation, 1986\u201389","author":"Langan","year":"1992"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1525\/fsr.2002.15.1.58","volume-title":"Recidivism of prisoners released in 1994","author":"Langan","year":"2002"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR39","volume-title":"A portrait of prisoner reentry in Maryland","author":"LaVigne","year":"2003"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR40","volume-title":"A portrait of prisoner reentry in Illinois","author":"LaVigne","year":"2003"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR41","volume-title":"A portrait of prisoner reentry in Ohio","author":"LaVigne","year":"2003"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR42","volume-title":"Sunbelt justice: Arizona and the transformation of American punishment","author":"Lynch","year":"2010"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR43","volume-title":"Probation and parole in the United States, 2012","author":"Maruschak","year":"2013"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-5893.2008.00342.x","article-title":"Incarceration, health, and racial disparities in health","volume":"42","author":"Massoglia","year":"2008","journal-title":"Law and Society Review"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR45","unstructured":"Mauer M. (2013). Can we wait 88 years to end mass incarceration?Huffington Post. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/marc-mauer\/88-years-mass-incarceration_b_4474132.html"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1007\/s13524-016-0493-7","article-title":"Geographic variation in the cumulative risk of imprisonment and parental imprisonment in the United States","volume":"53","author":"Muller","year":"2016","journal-title":"Demography"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR47","volume-title":"The growth of incarceration in the United States: Exploring causes and consequences","year":"2014"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR48","volume-title":"Domestic net migration in the United States: 2000 to 2004","author":"Perry","year":"2006"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR49","volume-title":"Invisible men","author":"Pettit","year":"2012"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1177\/000312240406900201","article-title":"Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration","volume":"69","author":"Pettit","year":"2004","journal-title":"American Sociological Review"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR51","volume-title":"State of recidivism: The revolving door of America\u2019s prisons","year":"2011"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1111\/lapo.12002","article-title":"The paradox of probation: Community supervision in the age of mass incarceration","volume":"35","author":"Phelps","year":"2013","journal-title":"Law & Policy"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1177\/1462474516649174","article-title":"Mass probation: Toward a more robust theory of state variation in punishment","volume":"19","author":"Phelps","year":"2017","journal-title":"Punishment & Society"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1177\/002214650704800202","article-title":"Enduring stigma: The long-term effects of incarceration on health","volume":"48","author":"Schnittker","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Health and Social Behavior"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1017\/S1742058X11000026","article-title":"Incarceration and the health of the African American community","volume":"8","author":"Schnittker","year":"2011","journal-title":"Du Bois Review"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0009.12136","article-title":"The institutional effects of incarceration: Spillovers from criminal justice to health care","volume":"93","author":"Schnittker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Milbank Quarterly"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR57","first-page":"42","article-title":"Visualizing punishment","volume-title":"Crime and the punished","author":"Shannon","year":"2013"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01265.x","article-title":"The interaction of race, gender, and age in criminal sentencing: The punishment cost of being young, black, and male","volume":"36","author":"Steffensmeier","year":"1998","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0011-1348.2005.00007.x","article-title":"Partisan politics, electoral competition and imprisonment: An analysis of states over time","volume":"43","author":"Stucky","year":"2005","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716214526345","article-title":"Mass incarceration, family complexity, and the reproduction of childhood disadvantage","volume":"654","author":"Sykes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR61","volume-title":"Malign neglect: Race, crime, and punishment in America","author":"Tonry","year":"1996"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195141016.001.0001","volume-title":"Thinking about crime: Sense and sensibility in American penal culture","author":"Tonry","year":"2004"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR63","volume-title":"But they all come back: Facing the challenges of prisoner reentry","author":"Travis","year":"2005"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1177\/0022146514544173","article-title":"Stress proliferation across generations? Examining the relationship between parental incarceration and childhood health","volume":"55","author":"Turney","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Health and Social Behavior"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR65","volume-title":"National prisoner statistics","year":"1948"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR66","volume-title":"U.S. census of population: 1950","year":"1953"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR67","volume-title":"U.S. census of population: 1960. Subject Reports: State of Birth","author":"U.S. Bureau of the Census","year":"1963"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR68","volume-title":"Census of population: 1970 Subject Reports","year":"1973"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR69","volume-title":"1980 Census of Population","year":"1984"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR70","unstructured":"U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). State and county level estimates with components of change, 2000 to 2009. Prepared by the University of Missouri Extension, Office of Social & Economic Data Analysis (OSEDA). Retrieved from http:\/\/mcdc.missouri.edu\/data\/popests\/Reports\/dmig_report_states.html"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR71","unstructured":"U.S. Census Bureau. (2013). Annual geographic mobility rates, by type of movement: 1948\u20132013 [Data set]. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.census.gov\/topics\/population\/migration\/data\/tables.html"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR72","volume-title":"Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department","year":"2015"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.2307\/3088970","article-title":"Democratic contraction? Political consequences of felon disenfranchisement in the United States","volume":"67","author":"Uggen","year":"2002","journal-title":"American Sociological Review"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716206286898","article-title":"Citizenship, democracy, and the civic reintegration of criminal offenders","volume":"605","author":"Uggen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR75","first-page":"3","article-title":"Six social sources of the U.S. crime drop","volume-title":"Crime and the punished","author":"Uggen","year":"2013"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR76","first-page":"1971","article-title":"Piling on: Collateral consequences and community supervision","volume":"99","author":"Uggen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Minnesota Law Review"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1111\/1745-9125.12051","article-title":"The edge of stigma: An experimental audit of the effects of low-level criminal records on employment","volume":"52","author":"Uggen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1080\/09627251.2012.721980","article-title":"The punitive regulation of poverty in the neoliberal era","volume":"89","author":"Wacquant","year":"2012","journal-title":"Criminal Justice Matters"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.soc.012809.102551","article-title":"Incarceration and stratification","volume":"36","author":"Wakefield","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annual Review of Sociology"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1037\/e720302011-001","volume-title":"A portrait of prisoner reentry in Texas","author":"Watson","year":"2004"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR81","volume-title":"Punishment and inequality in America","author":"Western","year":"2006"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1030","DOI":"10.1086\/210135","article-title":"How unregulated is the U.S. labor market? The penal system as a labor market institution","volume":"104","author":"Western","year":"1999","journal-title":"American Journal of Sociology"},{"key":"2021012716485733300_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1353\/dem.0.0052","article-title":"Parental imprisonment, the prison boom, and the concentration of childhood disadvantage","volume":"46","author":"Wildeman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Demography"}],"container-title":["Demography"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s13524-017-0611-1\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s13524-017-0611-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/read.dukeupress.edu\/demography\/article-pdf\/54\/5\/1795\/839647\/1795shannon.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s13524-017-0611-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"},{"URL":"http:\/\/read.dukeupress.edu\/demography\/article-pdf\/54\/5\/1795\/839647\/1795shannon.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,26]],"date-time":"2024-06-26T17:36:33Z","timestamp":1719423393000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/read.dukeupress.edu\/demography\/article\/54\/5\/1795\/167743\/The-Growth-Scope-and-Spatial-Distribution-of"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,11]]},"references-count":83,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,11]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13524-017-0611-1","relation":{},"ISSN":["0070-3370","1533-7790"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0070-3370","type":"print"},{"value":"1533-7790","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,11]]}}}