{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T22:33:20Z","timestamp":1792103600542,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785542400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785542400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Research Foundation","award":["NRF-2021R1A6A1A03038865"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2021R1A6A1A03038865"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomed. Eng. Lett."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s13534-026-00605-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T08:47:12Z","timestamp":1785574032000},"page":"1219-1242","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Digital twin for neurological conditions: a systematic scoping review"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Bo-Young","family":"Youn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Soohyuk","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dahyun","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0484-7845","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ki Chang","family":"Nam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"605_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30411-9","volume":"19","author":"VL Feigin","year":"2020","unstructured":"Feigin VL, et al. The global burden of neurological disorders: translating evidence into policy. Lancet Neurol. 2020;19(3):255\u201365. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30411-9.","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"605_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"GBD 2016 Neurology Collaborators. Global, regional, and national burden of neurological disorders, 1990\u20132016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Neurol. 2019;18(5):459\u201380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1474-4422(18)30499-X.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(18)30499-X"},{"key":"605_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2015.12.056","author":"B De Strooper","year":"2016","unstructured":"De Strooper B, Karran E. The cellular phase of Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Cell. 2016. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cell.2015.12.056.","journal-title":"Cell"},{"issue":"9996","key":"605_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)61393-3","volume":"386","author":"LV Kalia","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kalia LV, Lang AE. Parkinson\u2019s disease. Lancet. 2015;386(9996):896\u2013912. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)61393-3.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"605_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2018.06.001","volume":"50","author":"H Hampel","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hampel H, et al. Precision medicine and drug development in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: the importance of sexual dimorphism and patient stratification. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2018;50:31\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.yfrne.2018.06.001.","journal-title":"Front Neuroendocrinol"},{"issue":"3","key":"605_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4478","volume":"20","author":"CW Woo","year":"2017","unstructured":"Woo CW, et al. Building better biomarkers: brain models in translational neuroimaging. Nat Neurosci. 2017;20(3):365\u201377. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nn.4478.","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"issue":"48","key":"605_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4556","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehaa159","volume":"41","author":"J Corral-Acero","year":"2020","unstructured":"Corral-Acero J, et al. The \u2018Digital Twin\u2019 to enable the vision of precision cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2020;41(48):4556\u201364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehaa159.","journal-title":"Eur Heart J"},{"key":"605_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-019-0701-3","volume":"12","author":"B Bj\u00f6rnsson","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bj\u00f6rnsson B, et al. Digital twins to personalize medicine. Genome Med. 2020;12:4. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13073-019-0701-3.","journal-title":"Genome Med"},{"key":"605_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108952","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2998358","volume":"8","author":"A Fuller","year":"2020","unstructured":"Fuller A, et al. Digital twin: enabling technologies, challenges and open research. IEEE Access. 2020;8:108952\u201371. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2998358.","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"605_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1633539","DOI":"10.3389\/fdgth.2025.1633539","volume":"7","author":"HK Rudsari","year":"2025","unstructured":"Rudsari HK, et al. Digital twins in healthcare: a comprehensive review and future directions. Front Digit Health. 2025;7:1633539. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fdgth.2025.1633539.","journal-title":"Front Digit Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"605_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"nwae079","DOI":"10.1093\/nsr\/nwae079","volume":"11","author":"HE Wang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wang HE, et al. Virtual brain twins: from basic neuroscience to clinical use. Natl Sci Rev. 2024;11(5):nwae079. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/nsr\/nwae079.","journal-title":"Natl Sci Rev"},{"key":"605_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1454856","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2024.1454856","volume":"18","author":"LS Fekonja","year":"2024","unstructured":"Fekonja LS, et al. The digital twin in neuroscience: from theory to tailored therapy. Front Neurosci. 2024;18:1454856. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnins.2024.1454856.","journal-title":"Front Neurosci"},{"key":"605_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1109\/RBME.2025.3562951","volume":"19","author":"M Hashemi","year":"2026","unstructured":"Hashemi M, et al. Principles and operation of virtual brain twins. IEEE Rev Biomed Eng. 2026;19:111\u201339. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/RBME.2025.3562951.","journal-title":"IEEE Rev Biomed Eng"},{"issue":"1","key":"605_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms27010122","volume":"27","author":"CP Tataru","year":"2025","unstructured":"Tataru CP, et al. Designing neural dynamics: from digital twin modeling to regeneration. Int J Mol Sci. 2025;27(1):122. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms27010122.","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"605_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1732759","DOI":"10.3389\/fdgth.2025.1732759","volume":"7","author":"DC Wunsch III","year":"2026","unstructured":"Wunsch DC III, Hier DB. Large language models for neurology: a mini review. Front Digit Health. 2026;7:1732759. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fdgth.2025.1732759.","journal-title":"Front Digit Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"605_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurot.2025.e00553","volume":"22","author":"Y Ren","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ren Y, Pieper AA, Cheng F. Utilization of precision medicine digital twins for drug discovery in Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Neurotherapeutics. 2025;22(3):e00553. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neurot.2025.e00553.","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"issue":"1","key":"605_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-025-01765-z","volume":"17","author":"LG Amato","year":"2025","unstructured":"Amato LG, et al. Digital twins and non-invasive recordings enable early diagnosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2025;17(1):125. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13195-025-01765-z.","journal-title":"Alzheimers Res Ther"},{"key":"605_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-43618-5","author":"S Cen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Cen S, et al. Toward precision medicine using a digital twin approach. Sci Rep. 2023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-023-43618-5.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"1","key":"605_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-025-01910-w","volume":"8","author":"BH Tudor","year":"2025","unstructured":"Tudor BH, et al. A scoping review of human digital twins in healthcare applications and usage patterns. NPJ Digit Med. 2025;8(1):587. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41746-025-01910-w.","journal-title":"NPJ Digit Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"605_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14020324","volume":"14","author":"M Tortora","year":"2025","unstructured":"Tortora M, et al. Medical digital twin: a review on technical principles and clinical applications. J Clin Med. 2025;14(2):324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm14020324.","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"605_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-022-00640-7","volume":"5","author":"GM Coorey","year":"2022","unstructured":"Coorey GM, et al. The health digital twin to tackle cardiovascular disease\u2014a review of an emerging interdisciplinary field. NPJ Digit Med. 2022;5:126. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41746-022-00640-7.","journal-title":"NPJ Digit Med"},{"key":"605_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymeth.2020.01.011","volume":"185","author":"M Viceconti","year":"2021","unstructured":"Viceconti M, et al. In silico trials: verification, validation and uncertainty quantification of predictive models used in the regulatory evaluation of biomedical products. Methods. 2021;185:120\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ymeth.2020.01.011.","journal-title":"Methods"},{"key":"605_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1186\/s12874-018-0611-x","volume":"18","author":"Z Munn","year":"2018","unstructured":"Munn Z, et al. Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2018;18:143. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12874-018-0611-x.","journal-title":"BMC Med Res Methodol"},{"issue":"1","key":"605_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/1364557032000119616","volume":"8","author":"H Arksey","year":"2005","unstructured":"Arksey H, O\u2019Malley L. Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. Int J Soc Res Methodol. 2005;8(1):19\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/1364557032000119616.","journal-title":"Int J Soc Res Methodol"},{"key":"605_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1186\/1748-5908-5-69","volume":"5","author":"D Levac","year":"2010","unstructured":"Levac D, et al. Scoping studies: advancing the methodology. Implement Sci. 2010;5:69. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1748-5908-5-69.","journal-title":"Implement Sci"},{"issue":"7","key":"605_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850","volume":"169","author":"AC Tricco","year":"2018","unstructured":"Tricco AC, et al. PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): checklist and explanation. Ann Intern Med. 2018;169(7):467\u201373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7326\/M18-0850.","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"key":"605_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-024-01073-0","volume":"7","author":"E Katsoulakis","year":"2024","unstructured":"Katsoulakis E, et al. Digital twins for health: a scoping review. NPJ Digit Med. 2024;7:77. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41746-024-01073-0.","journal-title":"NPJ Digit Med"},{"key":"605_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2018.00031","volume":"9","author":"K Bruynseels","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bruynseels K, et al. Digital twins in health care: ethical implications of an emerging engineering paradigm. Front Genet. 2018;9:31. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fgene.2018.00031.","journal-title":"Front Genet"},{"issue":"1","key":"605_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-025-01447-y","volume":"8","author":"K Sel","year":"2025","unstructured":"Sel K, et al. Survey and perspective on verification, validation, and uncertainty quantification of digital twins for precision medicine. NPJ Digit Med. 2025;8(1):40. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41746-025-01447-y.","journal-title":"NPJ Digit Med"},{"key":"605_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hoekstra AG, Marquering H, the GEMINI consortium. Towards a generation of digital twins in healthcare of ischaemic and haemorrhagic stroke. In: Franco L, de Mulatier C, Paszynski M, Krzhizhanovskaya VV, Dongarra JJ, Sloot PMA, editors. Computational science \u2013 ICCS 2024: 24th International conference; 2024 Jul 2\u20134; M\u00e1laga, Spain. Proceedings, Part III. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 14834. Cham: Springer; 2024. pp. 239\u2013245. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-031-63759-9_29.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-63759-9_29"},{"issue":"Suppl 6","key":"605_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e086975","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.086975","volume":"20","author":"D Andrews","year":"2024","unstructured":"Andrews D, Collins DL, the Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. A digital twin technique using external observational data to reduce sample sizes in clinical trials on Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2024;20(Suppl 6):e086975. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/alz.086975.","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"605_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.10.28.25338899","author":"D Andrews","year":"2025","unstructured":"Andrews D, Golchi S, Collins DL, the Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative A digital twin methodology using real patient data for sample size reduction in Alzheimer\u2019s disease randomized controlled clinical trials. medRxiv. 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2025.10.28.25338899.","journal-title":"medRxiv"},{"issue":"12","key":"605_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5576","DOI":"10.3390\/app11125576","volume":"11","author":"A Allen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Allen A, Siefkas A, Pellegrini E, Burdick H, Barnes G, Calvert J, et al. A digital twins machine learning model for forecasting disease progression in stroke patients. Appl Sci. 2021;11(12):5576. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app11125576.","journal-title":"Appl Sci"},{"issue":"Suppl 2","key":"605_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"igaf122.3178","DOI":"10.1093\/geroni\/igaf122.3178","volume":"9","author":"A Bangs","year":"2025","unstructured":"Bangs A, Paterson T, Rohrs J, Breuner D, Funk C. Development of a digital twin clinical decision support tool for Alzheimer\u2019s prediction and prevention. Innov Aging. 2025;9(Suppl 2):igaf122.3178. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/geroni\/igaf122.3178 \u00a0.","journal-title":"Innov Aging"},{"key":"605_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.64898\/2026.02.03.26345022","author":"N Busby","year":"2026","unstructured":"Busby N, et al. Digital twin model of treatment outcomes in post-stroke aphasia. medRxiv. 2026. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.64898\/2026.02.03.26345022.","journal-title":"medRxiv"},{"key":"605_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-43618-5","author":"S Cen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Cen S, et al. Toward precision medicine using a digital twin approach: modeling the onset of disease-specific brain atrophy in individuals with multiple sclerosis. Sci Rep. 2023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-023-43618-5.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"605_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1186\/s12883-023-03192-9","volume":"23","author":"J Dang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Dang J, Lal A, Montgomery A, et al. Developing DELPHI expert consensus rules for a digital twin model of acute stroke care in the neuro critical care unit. BMC Neurol. 2023;23:161. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12883-023-03192-9.","journal-title":"BMC Neurol"},{"key":"605_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/a-2761-5903","author":"A de Vecchi","year":"2026","unstructured":"de Vecchi A, et al. Digital twins for predictive modelling of thrombosis and stroke risk: current approaches and future directions. Thromb Haemost. 2026. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1055\/a-2761-5903.","journal-title":"Thromb Haemost"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"605_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e18151","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.18151","volume":"65","author":"B Dirks","year":"2024","unstructured":"Dirks B, et al. Towards a digital twin of the epileptic brain network in patients with medically refractory focal epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2024;65(Suppl 1):e18151. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/epi.18151.","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"issue":"20","key":"605_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e39527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e39527","volume":"10","author":"M Falanga","year":"2024","unstructured":"Falanga M, Cortesi C, Chiaravalloti A, Dal Monte A, Tomasi C, Corsi C. A digital twin approach for stroke risk assessment in atrial fibrillation patients. Heliyon. 2024;10(20):e39527. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e39527.","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"issue":"Suppl 8","key":"605_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e080723","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.080723","volume":"19","author":"M Funk","year":"2023","unstructured":"Funk M, et al. Creation of a brain homeostatic model, digital twin, and digital population for functional assessment of lipidomics. Alzheimers Dement. 2023;19(Suppl 8):e080723. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/alz.080723.","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"605_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Greimler G. Development of an integrated digital twin model for monitoring and predicting therapy progress in neurological patients using ICF-based documentation and therapy devices data. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15459683241308361","DOI":"10.1177\/15459683241308361"},{"key":"605_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.08.22.609156","author":"N Harbour","year":"2024","unstructured":"Harbour N, et al. Virtual clinical trials of BMP4 differentiation therapy: digital twins to aid glioblastoma trial design. bioRxiv. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2024.08.22.609156.","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"605_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.03.25.485803","author":"T Herrg\u00e5rdh","year":"2022","unstructured":"Herrg\u00e5rdh T, et al. Digital twins and hybrid modelling for simulation of physiological variables and stroke risk. bioRxiv. 2022. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2022.03.25.485803.","journal-title":"bioRxiv [Preprint]"},{"key":"605_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.08.17.670697","author":"J Jiang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Jiang J, Petrella JR, Hao W, the Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. Identifiability-guided assessment of digital twins in Alzheimer\u2019s disease clinical research and care. bioRxiv. 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2025.08.17.670697.","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"issue":"2","key":"605_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1002\/cpt.3498","volume":"117","author":"C Kaddi","year":"2025","unstructured":"Kaddi C, et al. Quantitative systems pharmacology-based digital twins approach supplements clinical trial data for enzyme replacement therapies in Pompe disease. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2025;117(2):579\u201388. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/cpt.3498.","journal-title":"Clin Pharmacol Ther"},{"key":"605_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74047","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3564887","volume":"13","author":"S Khan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Khan S, Anwar U, Khan A, Arslan T. RF-based sensing and AI decision support for stroke patient monitoring: a digital twin approach. IEEE Access. 2025;13:74047\u201361. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3564887.","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"605_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180968","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3508029","volume":"12","author":"MW Lauer-Schmaltz","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lauer-Schmaltz MW, et al. Human digital twins in rehabilitation: a case study on exoskeleton and serious-game-based stroke rehabilitation using the ETHICA methodology. IEEE Access. 2024;12:180968\u201391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3508029.","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"605_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lytton WW, et al. Coupling brain network simulation with pharmacokinetics for Parkinson\u2019s disease: towards patient-usable digital twins. J Comput Neurosci. 2026;54(Suppl 1):S204\u2013S205. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10827-025-00915-4","DOI":"10.1007\/s10827-025-00915-4"},{"key":"605_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2023.05.020","volume":"21","author":"A Maleki","year":"2023","unstructured":"Maleki A, et al. Moving forward through the in silico modeling of multiple sclerosis: treatment layer implementation and validation. Comput Struct Biotechnol J. 2023;21:3081\u201390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.csbj.2023.05.020.","journal-title":"Comput Struct Biotechnol J"},{"issue":"3","key":"605_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1002\/psp4.13093","volume":"13","author":"S Mostafa","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mostafa S, et al. Virtual twins for model-informed precision dosing of clozapine in patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia. CPT Pharmacometrics Syst Pharmacol. 2024;13(3):424\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/psp4.13093.","journal-title":"CPT Pharmacometrics Syst Pharmacol"},{"key":"605_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Olmos L, et al. Boosting clinical trial power in ALS with AI-generated digital twins. Amyotroph Lateral Scler Frontotemporal Degener. 2024;25(Suppl 1):49. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/21678421.2024.2403293","DOI":"10.1080\/21678421.2024.2403293"},{"key":"605_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Pham H, et al. Enhancing plasma NfL prognostic value and improving trial efficiency through digital twins in ALS. Amyotroph Lateral Scler Frontotemporal Degener. 2025;26(Suppl 2):205. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/21678421.2025.2564559","DOI":"10.1080\/21678421.2025.2564559"},{"key":"605_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.01.14.633081","author":"Y Ren","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ren Y, Hu M, Li YE, Pieper AA, Cummings JL, Cheng F. Single-cell digital twins identify drug targets and repurposable medicine in Alzheimer\u2019s disease. bioRxiv. 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2025.01.14.633081.","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"605_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e107177","DOI":"10.1002\/alz70860_107177","volume":"21","author":"J Rohrs","year":"2025","unstructured":"Rohrs J, Paterson T, Breuner D, Funk CC. From conflicting data to predictive insights: a digital twin approach for ADRD risk and resilience. Alzheimers Dement. 2025;21:e107177. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/alz70860_107177.","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"issue":"Suppl 8","key":"605_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e082769","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.082769","volume":"19","author":"AB Sanjay","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sanjay AB, Shokeen D, Shen X, Shin S-Y, Latourelle J. Alzheimer\u2019s disease mechanistic pathways were discovered through in silico experiments in causal AI based digital twins. Alzheimers Dement. 2023;19(Suppl 8):e082769. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/alz.082769.","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"605_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e091647","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.091647","volume":"20","author":"AB Sanjay","year":"2024","unstructured":"Sanjay AB, Sun L, Shokeen D, Isacson O, Shin S-Y, Latourelle J. Investigating the ATN (Amyloid, Tau, Neurodegeneration) framework in Alzheimer\u2019s disease and its causal genetic-drivers using digital-twins. Alzheimers Dement. 2024;20:e091647. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/alz.091647.","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"605_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e107374","DOI":"10.1002\/alz70856_107374","volume":"21","author":"AB Sanjay","year":"2025","unstructured":"Sanjay AB, Shokeen D, Latourelle J, Shin S-Y. Causal relationships between blood metabolites, cognitive outcomes, brain imaging, and CSF biomarkers in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: insights from digital-twins. Alzheimers Dement. 2025;21:e107374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/alz70856_107374.","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"605_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13","DOI":"10.1017\/wtc.2024.14","volume":"5","author":"D Simonetti","year":"2024","unstructured":"Simonetti D, et al. A wearable gait lab powered by sensor-driven digital twins for quantitative biomechanical analysis post-stroke. Wearable Technol. 2024;5:e13. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/wtc.2024.14.","journal-title":"Wearable Technol"},{"key":"605_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.34133\/bmef.0231","author":"Y Takahashi","year":"2026","unstructured":"Takahashi Y, et al. Digital twin brain: generating multitask behavior from connectomes for personalized therapy. BME Front. 2026. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.34133\/bmef.0231.","journal-title":"BME Front"},{"issue":"1","key":"605_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40708-024-00247-6","volume":"12","author":"V Upadrista","year":"2025","unstructured":"Upadrista V, Nazir S, Tianfield H. Blockchain-enabled digital twin system for brain stroke prediction. Brain Inf. 2025;12(1):1. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40708-024-00247-6.","journal-title":"Brain Inf"},{"issue":"Suppl 10","key":"605_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e065386","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.065386","volume":"18","author":"JR Walsh","year":"2022","unstructured":"Walsh JR, et al. Evaluating digital twins for Alzheimer\u2019s disease using data from a completed phase 2 clinical trial. Alzheimers Dement. 2022;18(Suppl 10):e065386. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/alz.065386.","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"605_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e066336","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.066336","volume":"18","author":"N Wickramasinghe","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wickramasinghe N, et al. Towards discovering digital twins of dementia patients: matching the phases of cognitive decline. Alzheimers Dement. 2022;18:e066336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/alz.066336.","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"issue":"1","key":"605_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-026-01905-y","volume":"23","author":"Yan","year":"2026","unstructured":"Yan, et al. Prognosis prediction of patients with disorders of consciousness based on digital twin brain models. J NeuroEng Rehabil. 2026;23(1):94. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12984-026-01905-y.","journal-title":"J NeuroEng Rehabil"},{"key":"605_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e50204","DOI":"10.2196\/50204","volume":"26","author":"A Vall\u00e9e","year":"2024","unstructured":"Vall\u00e9e A. Envisioning the future of personalized medicine: role and realities of digital twins. J Med Internet Res. 2024;26:e50204. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196\/50204.","journal-title":"J Med Internet Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"605_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1080\/17460441.2023.2273839","volume":"19","author":"M Bordukova","year":"2024","unstructured":"Bordukova M, et al. Generative artificial intelligence empowers digital twins in drug discovery and clinical trials. Expert Opin Drug Discov. 2024;19(1):33\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/17460441.2023.2273839.","journal-title":"Expert Opin Drug Discov"},{"key":"605_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cirpj.2020.02.002","volume":"29","author":"D Jones","year":"2020","unstructured":"Jones D, Snider C, Nassehi A, Yon J, Hicks B. Characterising the digital twin: a systematic literature review. CIRP J Manuf Sci Technol. 2020;29:36\u201352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cirpj.2020.02.002.","journal-title":"CIRP J Manuf Sci Technol"},{"issue":"11","key":"605_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-018-0079-7","volume":"14","author":"H Hampel","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hampel H, O\u2019Bryant SE, Molinuevo JL, et al. Blood-based biomarkers for Alzheimer disease: mapping the road to the clinic. Nat Rev Neurol. 2018;14(11):639\u201352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41582-018-0079-7.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurol"},{"key":"605_CR69","unstructured":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Artificial Intelligence\/Machine Learning (AI\/ML)-Based Software as a Medical Device (SaMD) Action Plan. FDA; 2021. Available from: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medical-devices\/software-medical-device-samd\/artificial-intelligence-software-medical-device."},{"issue":"8","key":"605_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-020-0377-8","volume":"16","author":"MA Myszczynska","year":"2020","unstructured":"Myszczynska MA, et al. Applications of machine learning to diagnosis and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Nat Rev Neurol. 2020;16(8):440\u201356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41582-020-0377-8.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurol"},{"key":"605_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1038\/s41540-025-00592-0","volume":"11","author":"H Akbarialiabad","year":"2025","unstructured":"Akbarialiabad H, et al. Enhancing randomized clinical trials with digital twins. NPJ Syst Biol Appl. 2025;11:110. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41540-025-00592-0.","journal-title":"NPJ Syst Biol Appl"},{"issue":"9","key":"605_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12861","DOI":"10.2196\/12861","volume":"7","author":"C Dinh-Le","year":"2019","unstructured":"Dinh-Le C, Chuang R, Chokshi S, Mann D. Wearable health technology and electronic health record integration: scoping review and future directions. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth. 2019;7(9):e12861. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196\/12861.","journal-title":"JMIR Mhealth Uhealth"},{"key":"605_CR73","unstructured":"European Medicines Agency. Qualification opinion for Prognostic Covariate Adjustment (PROCOVA\u2122). CHMP, EMA. 2022. Available from: https:\/\/www.ema.europa.eu\/en\/human-regulatory-overview\/research-development\/scientific-advice-protocol-assistance\/opinions-letters-support-qualification-novel-methodologies-medicine-development."}],"container-title":["Biomedical Engineering Letters"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s13534-026-00605-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s13534-026-00605-9","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s13534-026-00605-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T08:03:05Z","timestamp":1790582585000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s13534-026-00605-9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["605"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13534-026-00605-9","relation":{},"ISSN":["2093-9868","2093-985X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2093-9868","type":"print"},{"value":"2093-985X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"14 April 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 July 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 August 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"No conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, are declared by the authors.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Conflict of interest","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"No human or animal subjects are involved in this article.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethical approval","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}]}}