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The unique role of in vitro assays in cell biology has led to numerous transformations in our understanding of the functional and structural details of the cells and tissues that comprise these systems. However, the traditional monolayer assays have been reported to fall short of the in vivo physiology of cells. This has led to the development of 3D cell models, such as spheroids and organoids, that aim to recapitulate the intricate structural and functional behaviour of in vivo tumours. This review describes passive methods of spheroid formation (scaffold-free and scaffold-based) and the limitations that have driven the development of engineered active design methods to increase the physiological relevance of the model. Traditional assays need to be modified to evaluate these models, accounting for their architecture, density, and microenvironment gradients. Current developments in performing 3D cell assays include increased reagent concentration and incubation periods; however, many protocols still require single-cell analysis. We present a review of assay developments that maintain the spatial and contextual information that makes the 3D models physiologically relevant. Additionally, we introduce the advances in microscopy techniques that provide deeper visualisation of these models.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s13577-026-01375-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,4]],"date-time":"2026-04-04T08:53:02Z","timestamp":1775292782000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["An overview of the developments in 3D cancer cell models, assay techniques, and imaging modalities"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"39","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-5275-2236","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola H.","family":"Wheeler","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kayode A.","family":"Dada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3692-7134","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carrie A.","family":"Minnaar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"1375_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0221942","author":"S Vernazza","year":"2019","unstructured":"Vernazza S, Tirendi S, Scarfi S, Passalacqua M, Oddone F, Traverso CE, et al. 2D-A nd 3D-cultures of human trabecular meshwork cells: a preliminary assessment of an in vitro model for glaucoma study. 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