{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,12]],"date-time":"2026-11-12T07:29:41Z","timestamp":1794468581878,"version":"4.9.1"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,2]],"date-time":"2022-08-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1659398400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,2]],"date-time":"2022-08-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1659398400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007052","name":"Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Verona","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007052","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["CNS Drugs"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,9]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s40263-022-00943-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,2]],"date-time":"2022-08-02T06:02:46Z","timestamp":1659420166000},"page":"919-931","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":57,"title":["Treatment Options in Refractory Autoimmune Encephalitis"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"36","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3249-4792","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Dinoto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3855-5135","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergio","family":"Ferrari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7806-3103","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Mariotto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"943_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.25131","volume":"83","author":"D Dubey","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dubey D, Pittock SJ, Kelly CR, McKeon A, Lopez-Chiriboga AS, Lennon VA, et al. Autoimmune encephalitis epidemiology and a comparison to infectious encephalitis. Ann Neurol. 2018;83:166\u201377.","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(15)00401-9","volume":"15","author":"F Graus","year":"2016","unstructured":"Graus F, Titulaer MJ, Balu R, Benseler S, Bien CG, Cellucci T, et al. A clinical approach to diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis. Lancet Neurol. 2016;15:391\u2013404.","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3151","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awt212","volume":"136","author":"SR Irani","year":"2013","unstructured":"Irani SR, Stagg CJ, Schott JM, Rosenthal CR, Schneider SA, Pettingill P, et al. Faciobrachial dystonic seizures: the influence of immunotherapy on seizure control and prevention of cognitive impairment in a broadening phenotype. Brain. 2013;136:3151\u201362.","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"943_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(12)70310-1","volume":"12","author":"MJ Titulaer","year":"2014","unstructured":"Titulaer MJ, McCracken L, Gabilondo I, Armangu\u00e9 T, Glaser C, Iizuka T, et al. Treatment and prognostic factors for long-term outcome in patients with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor encephalitis. Lancet Neurol. 2014;12:157\u201365.","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awx323","volume":"141","author":"J Thompson","year":"2018","unstructured":"Thompson J, Bi M, Murchison AG, Makuch M, Bien CG, Chu K, et al. The importance of early immunotherapy in patients with faciobrachial dystonic seizures. Brain. 2018;141:348\u201356.","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"943_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2021-327302","volume":"93","author":"A Rodriguez","year":"2022","unstructured":"Rodriguez A, Klein CJ, Sechi E, Alden E, Basso MR, Pudumjee S, et al. LGI1 antibody encephalitis: acute treatment comparisons and outcome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2022;93:309\u201315.","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"943_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.25655","volume":"87","author":"D Dubey","year":"2020","unstructured":"Dubey D, Britton J, McKeon A, Gadoth A, Zekeridou A, Lopez Chiriboga SA, et al. Randomized placebo-controlled trial of intravenous immunoglobulin in autoimmune LGI1\/CASPR2 epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 2020;87:313\u201323.","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-021-10004-9","volume":"16","author":"S Jacob","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jacob S, Mazibrada G, Irani SR, Jacob A, Yudina A. The role of plasma exchange in the treatment of refractory autoimmune neurological diseases: a narrative review. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2021;16:806\u201317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11481-021-10004-9.","journal-title":"J Neuroimmune Pharmacol"},{"key":"943_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2020-325300","volume":"92","author":"H Abboud","year":"2021","unstructured":"Abboud H, Probasco JC, Irani S, Ances B, Benavides DR, Bradshaw M, et al. Autoimmune encephalitis: Proposed best practice recommendations for diagnosis and acute management. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2021;92:757\u201368.","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"943_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2017","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-019-03930-3","volume":"40","author":"L Zuliani","year":"2019","unstructured":"Zuliani L, Nosadini M, Gastaldi M, Spatola M, Iorio R, Zoccarato M, et al. Management of antibody-mediated autoimmune encephalitis in adults and children: literature review and consensus-based practical recommendations. Neurol Sci. 2019;40:2017\u201330.","journal-title":"Neurol Sci"},{"key":"943_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1333","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2021.3188","volume":"78","author":"M Nosadini","year":"2021","unstructured":"Nosadini M, Eyre M, Molteni E, Thomas T, Irani SR, Dalmau J, et al. Use and safety of immunotherapeutic management of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibody encephalitis: a meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol. 2021;78:1333\u201344.","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2014.463","volume":"71","author":"SR Irani","year":"2014","unstructured":"Irani SR, Gelfand JM, Bettcher BM, Singhal NS, Geschwind MD. Effect of rituximab in patients with leucine-rich, glioma-inactivated 1 antibody-associated encephalopathy. JAMA Neurol. 2014;71:896\u2013900.","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2014.03.012","volume":"271","author":"JWL Brown","year":"2014","unstructured":"Brown JWL, Martin PJ, Thorpe JW, Michell AW, Coles AJ, Cox AL, et al. Long-term remission with rituximab in refractory leucine-rich glioma inactivated 1 antibody encephalitis. J Neuroimmunol. 2014;271:66\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2014.03.012.","journal-title":"J Neuroimmunol"},{"key":"943_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1684\/epd.2020.1213","volume":"22","author":"M Cheli","year":"2020","unstructured":"Cheli M, Dinoto A, Tommasini V, Aj\u010devi\u0107 M, Stella G, Catalan M, et al. Efficacy of rituximab on seizure control and cognitive symptoms in leucine-rich, glioma-inactivated 1 (LGI1) limbic encephalitis: a high-density electroencephalography case study. Epileptic Disord. 2020;22:678\u201382.","journal-title":"Epileptic Disord"},{"key":"943_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1949","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-020-04264-1","volume":"41","author":"I Markovic","year":"2020","unstructured":"Markovic I, Basic S, Devedjija S. Aggressive anti-LGI1 encephalitis defeated by one cycle of intravenous rituximab: a case report. Neurol Sci. 2020;41:1949\u201350.","journal-title":"Neurol Sci"},{"key":"943_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000001088","volume":"8","author":"FS Thaler","year":"2021","unstructured":"Thaler FS, Zimmermann L, Kammermeier S, Strippel C, Ringelstein M, Kraft A, et al. Rituximab treatment and long-term outcome of patients with autoimmune encephalitis: real-world evidence from the GENERATE Registry. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2021;8: e1088.","journal-title":"Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"943_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000001100","volume":"9","author":"M Ringelstein","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ringelstein M, Ayzenberg I, Lindenblatt G, Fischer K, Gahlen A, Novi G, et al. Interleukin-6 receptor blockade in treatment-refractory MOG-IgG-associated disease and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2022;9: e1100. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1212\/NXI.0000000000001100.","journal-title":"Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"943_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2114","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1901747","volume":"381","author":"T Yamamura","year":"2019","unstructured":"Yamamura T, Kleiter I, Fujihara K, Palace J, Greenberg B, Zakrzewska-Pniewska B, et al. Trial of satralizumab in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:2114\u201324.","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"943_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-016-0442-6","volume":"13","author":"WJ Lee","year":"2016","unstructured":"Lee WJ, Lee ST, Moon J, Sunwoo JS, Byun JI, Lim JA, et al. Tocilizumab in autoimmune encephalitis refractory to rituximab: an institutional cohort study. Neurotherapeutics. 2016;13:824\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13311-016-0442-6.","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"943_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-020-00921-7","volume":"18","author":"WJ Lee","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lee WJ, Lee ST, Shin YW, Lee HS, Shin HR, Kim DY, et al. Teratoma removal, steroid, IVIG, rituximab and tocilizumab (T-SIRT) in anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Neurotherapeutics. 2021;18:474\u201387.","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"943_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2018.07.016","volume":"86","author":"RL Randell","year":"2018","unstructured":"Randell RL, Adams AV, Van Mater H. Tocilizumab in refractory autoimmune encephalitis: a series of pediatric cases. Pediatr Neurol. 2018;86:66\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2018.07.016.","journal-title":"Pediatr Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR22","first-page":"1","volume":"2020","author":"M Benucci","year":"2020","unstructured":"Benucci M, Tramacere L, Infantino M, Manfredi M, Grossi V, Damiani A, et al. Efficacy of tocilizumab in limbic encephalitis with anti-CASPR2 antibodies. Case Rep Neurol Med. 2020;2020:1\u20135.","journal-title":"Case Rep Neurol Med."},{"key":"943_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2013.143","volume":"70","author":"C Krogias","year":"2013","unstructured":"Krogias C, Hoepner R, M\u00fcller A, Schneider-Gold C, Schr\u00f6der A, Gold R. Successful treatment of anti-Caspr2 syndrome by interleukin 6 receptor blockade through tocilizumab. JAMA Neurol. 2013;70:1056\u20139.","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebr.2020.100396","volume":"14","author":"F Jaafar","year":"2020","unstructured":"Jaafar F, Haddad L, Koleilat N, Sharara-Chami R, Shbarou R. Super refractory status epilepticus secondary to anti-GAD antibody encephalitis successfully treated with aggressive immunotherapy. Epilepsy Behav Rep. 2020;14: 100396. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ebr.2020.100396.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav Rep."},{"key":"943_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2008.11.014","volume":"30","author":"A Yu","year":"2009","unstructured":"Yu A, Zhu L, Altman NH, Malek TR. A Low interleukin-2 receptor signaling threshold supports the development and homeostasis of T regulatory cells. Immunity. 2009;30:204\u201317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.immuni.2008.11.014.","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"943_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2016.09.001","volume":"299","author":"JA Lim","year":"2016","unstructured":"Lim JA, Lee ST, Moon J, Jun JS, Park B-S, Byun JI, et al. New feasible treatment for refractory autoimmune encephalitis: low-dose interleukin-2. J Neuroimmunol. 2016;299:107\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2016.09.001.","journal-title":"J Neuroimmunol"},{"key":"943_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2015.00167","volume":"6","author":"G Widman","year":"2015","unstructured":"Widman G, Golombeck K, Hautzel H, Gross CC, Quesada CM, Witt J-A, et al. Treating a GAD65 antibody-associated limbic encephalitis with basiliximab: a case study. Front Neurol. 2015;6:167.","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1684\/epd.2021.1283","volume":"23","author":"CHO Choi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Choi CHO, Ma SHO, Ma KKY, Leung H, Mok VCT. Super-refractory status epilepticus in autoimmune encephalitis treated with interleukin-1 receptor antagonist, anakinra. Epileptic Disord. 2021;23:500\u20135.","journal-title":"Epileptic Disord"},{"key":"943_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.51500","volume":"9","author":"Y Jang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Jang Y, Lee WJ, Lee HS, Chu K, Lee SK, Lee ST. Anakinra treatment for refractory cerebral autoinflammatory responses. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2022;9:91\u20137.","journal-title":"Ann Clin Transl Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1428","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.656","volume":"5","author":"Y Jang","year":"2018","unstructured":"Jang Y, Woo KA, Lee ST, Park SH, Chu K, Lee SK. Cerebral autoinflammatory disease treated with anakinra. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2018;5:1428\u201333.","journal-title":"Ann Clin Transl Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.16838","volume":"62","author":"O Taraschenko","year":"2021","unstructured":"Taraschenko O, Fox HS, Zekeridou A, Pittock SJ, Eldridge E, Farukhuddin F, et al. Seizures and memory impairment induced by patient-derived anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibodies in mice are attenuated by anakinra, an interleukin-1 receptor antagonist. Epilepsia. 2021;62:671\u201382.","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"943_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e53","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.16848","volume":"62","author":"Y Jang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jang Y, Lee WJ, Lee HS, Chu K, Lee SK, Lee ST. Tofacitinib treatment for refractory autoimmune encephalitis. Epilepsia. 2021;62:e53\u20139.","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"943_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2020","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2020.102568","volume":"46","author":"F Massoud","year":"2020","unstructured":"Massoud F, Ismail II, Al-Hashel JY, Abboud H. CNS demyelination during tofacitinib therapy: first report. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2020;46:2020\u20132.","journal-title":"Mult Scler Relat Disord."},{"key":"943_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers12020265","volume":"12","author":"S Ito","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ito S. Proteasome inhibitors for the treatment of multiple myeloma. Cancers (Basel). 2020;12:265.","journal-title":"Cancers (Basel)."},{"key":"943_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-020-0381-z","volume":"16","author":"B Sun","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sun B, Ramberger M, O\u2019Connor KC, Bashford-Rogers RJM, Irani SR. The B cell immunobiology that underlies CNS autoantibody-mediated diseases. Nat Rev Neurol. 2020;16:481\u201392. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41582-020-0381-z.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1474","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2014-206016","volume":"74","author":"T Alexander","year":"2015","unstructured":"Alexander T, Sarfert R, Klotsche J, K\u00fchl AA, Rubbert-Roth A, Lorenz HM, et al. The proteasome inhibitior bortezomib depletes plasma cells and ameliorates clinical manifestations of refractory systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis. 2015;74:1474\u20138.","journal-title":"Ann Rheum Dis"},{"key":"943_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1010","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2017.1336","volume":"74","author":"C Zhang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Zhang C, Tian DC, Yang CS, Han B, Wang J, Yang L, et al. Safety and efficacy of bortezomib in patients with highly relapsing neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. JAMA Neurol. 2017;74:1010\u20132.","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-019-09585-6","volume":"267","author":"F Scheibe","year":"2020","unstructured":"Scheibe F, Ostendorf L, Reincke SM, Pr\u00fcss H, von Br\u00fcnneck AC, K\u00f6hnlein M, et al. Daratumumab treatment for therapy-refractory anti-CASPR2 encephalitis. J Neurol. 2020;267:317\u201323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00415-019-09585-6.","journal-title":"J Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000003536","volume":"88","author":"F Scheibe","year":"2017","unstructured":"Scheibe F, Pr\u00fcss H, Mengel AM, Kohler S, N\u00fcmann A, K\u00f6hnlein M, et al. Bortezomib for treatment of therapy-refractory anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Neurology. 2017;88:366\u201370.","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"943_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2016.2588","volume":"73","author":"V Behrendt","year":"2016","unstructured":"Behrendt V, Krogias C, Reinacher-Schick A, Gold R, Kleiter I. Bortezomib treatment for patients with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis. JAMA Neurol. 2016;73:1251\u20133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamaneurol.2016.2588.","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2017.08.011","volume":"312","author":"O Sveinsson","year":"2017","unstructured":"Sveinsson O, Granqvist M, Forslin Y, Blennow K, Zetterberg H, Piehl F. Successful combined targeting of B- and plasma cells in treatment refractory anti-NMDAR encephalitis. J Neuroimmunol. 2017;312:15\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2017.08.011.","journal-title":"J Neuroimmunol"},{"key":"943_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1591","DOI":"10.1111\/imj.15118","volume":"50","author":"LN Kim","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kim LN, Edwards L, Goonetilleke N, Kane A, McDougall A, Calic Z. Bortezomib for the treatment of refractory anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis. Intern Med J. 2020;50:1591\u20132.","journal-title":"Intern Med J"},{"key":"943_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2018.06.005","volume":"172","author":"C Schroeder","year":"2018","unstructured":"Schroeder C, Back C, Koc \u00dc, Strassburger-Krogias K, Reinacher-Schick A, Gold R, et al. Breakthrough treatment with bortezomib for a patient with anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2018;172:24\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.clineuro.2018.06.005.","journal-title":"Clin Neurol Neurosurg"},{"key":"943_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1384","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.13759","volume":"25","author":"S Keddie","year":"2018","unstructured":"Keddie S, Crisp SJ, Blackaby J, Cox A, Coles A, Hart M, et al. Plasma cell depletion with bortezomib in the treatment of refractory N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antibody encephalitis: rational developments in neuroimmunological treatment. Eur J Neurol. 2018;25:1384\u20138.","journal-title":"Eur J Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.13078","volume":"25","author":"XT Zhang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Zhang XT, Wang CJ, Wang BJ, Guo SG. The short-term efficacy of combined treatments targeting B cell and plasma cell in severe and refractory anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis: two case reports. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2019;25:151\u20133.","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci Ther"},{"key":"943_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2019.09.004","volume":"103","author":"R Cordani","year":"2020","unstructured":"Cordani R, Micalizzi C, Giacomini T, Gastaldi M, Franciotta D, Fioredda F, et al. Bortezomib-responsive refractory anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis. Pediatr Neurol. 2020;103:61\u20134. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2019.09.004.","journal-title":"Pediatr Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2462","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-020-09988-w","volume":"267","author":"SM Lazzarin","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lazzarin SM, Vabanesi M, Cecchetti G, Fazio R, Fanelli GF, Volont\u00e9 MA, et al. Refractory anti-NMDAR encephalitis successfully treated with bortezomib and associated movements disorders controlled with tramadol: a case report with literature review. J Neurol. 2020;267:2462\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00415-020-09988-w.","journal-title":"J Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.00188","volume":"11","author":"MT Turnbull","year":"2020","unstructured":"Turnbull MT, Siegel JL, Becker TL, Stephens AJ, Lopez-Chiriboga AS, Freeman WD. Early bortezomib therapy for refractory anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Front Neurol. 2020;11:1\u20136.","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"577565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2021.577565","volume":"355","author":"T Govil-Dalela","year":"2021","unstructured":"Govil-Dalela T, Datta I, Williams M. Refractory NMDA-receptor encephalitis in a teenager: a novel use of bortezomib. J Neuroimmunol. 2021;355:577565. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2021.577565.","journal-title":"J Neuroimmunol"},{"key":"943_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2018","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjno-2020-000096","volume":"3","author":"K Karunaratne","year":"2021","unstructured":"Karunaratne K, Ahrabian D, Monoghan B, Campion T, Yousry T, Lunn MP, et al. Bortezomib for anti-NMDAR encephalitis following daclizumab treatment in a patient with multiple sclerosis. BMJ Neurol Open. 2021;3:2018\u201321.","journal-title":"BMJ Neurol Open."},{"key":"943_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.557","volume":"5","author":"YW Shin","year":"2018","unstructured":"Shin YW, Lee ST, Kim TJ, Jun JS, Chu K. Bortezomib treatment for severe refractory anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2018;5:598\u2013605.","journal-title":"Ann Clin Transl Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2021.577527","volume":"354","author":"T Wang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wang T, Wang B, Zeng Z, Li H, Zhang F, Ruan X, et al. Efficacy and safety of bortezomib in rituximab-resistant anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (anti-NMDAR) encephalitis as well as the clinical characteristics: an observational study. J Neuroimmunol. 2021;354: 577527. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2021.577527.","journal-title":"J Neuroimmunol"},{"key":"943_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2021.577586","volume":"356","author":"A Dinoto","year":"2021","unstructured":"Dinoto A, Cheli M, Bratina A, Sartori A, Manganotti P. Bortezomib in anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate-receptor (NMDA-R) encephalitis: a systematic review. J Neuroimmunol. 2021;356: 577586. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2021.577586.","journal-title":"J Neuroimmunol"},{"key":"943_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1506348","volume":"373","author":"HM Lokhorst","year":"2015","unstructured":"Lokhorst HM, Plesner T, Laubach JP, Nahi H, Gimsing P, Hansson M, et al. Targeting CD38 with daratumumab monotherapy in multiple myeloma. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:1207\u201319.","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"943_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clml.2018.07.229","volume":"18","author":"M Vercruyssen","year":"2018","unstructured":"Vercruyssen M, El Hachem G, Maerevoet M. The daratumumab crosses the blood brain barrier. Clin Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk. 2018;18:S289. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.clml.2018.07.229.","journal-title":"Clin Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk"},{"key":"943_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-020-10370-z","volume":"268","author":"SM Lazzarin","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lazzarin SM, Vabanesi M, Cecchetti G, Fazio R, Fanelli GF, Volont\u00e9 MA, et al. Correction to: Refractory anti-NMDAR encephalitis successfully treated with bortezomib and associated movements disorders controlled with tramadol: a case report with literature review. J Neurol. 2021;268:741\u20132. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00415-020-10370-z (Journal of Neurology, (2020), 267, 8, (2462-2468), 10.1007\/s00415-020).","journal-title":"J Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.602102","volume":"11","author":"D Ratuszny","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ratuszny D, Skripuletz T, Wegner F, Gro\u00df M, Falk C, Jacobs R, et al. Case report: daratumumab in a patient with severe refractory anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Front Neurol. 2020;11:1\u20135.","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.15266","volume":"29","author":"F Scheibe","year":"2022","unstructured":"Scheibe F, Ostendorf L, Pr\u00fcss H, Radbruch H, Aschman T, Hoffmann S, et al. Daratumumab for treatment-refractory antibody-mediated diseases in neurology. Eur J Neurol. 2022;29:1847\u201354.","journal-title":"Eur J Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/s11912-003-0084-9","volume":"5","author":"SL Berg","year":"2003","unstructured":"Berg SL, Chamberlain MC. Systemic chemotherapy, intrathecal chemotherapy, and symptom management in the treatment of leptomeningeal metastasis. Curr Oncol Rep. 2003;5:29\u201340.","journal-title":"Curr Oncol Rep"},{"key":"943_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2021.120042","volume":"431","author":"JE Eaton","year":"2021","unstructured":"Eaton JE, Kleinholz-Owens P, Sriram S, Pawate S. Intrathecal methotrexate: another tool for the treatment of refractory autoimmune encephalitis: single institution cohort and literature review. J Neurol Sci. 2021;431: 120042. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jns.2021.120042.","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"key":"943_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(13)70070-X","volume":"12","author":"Z Liba","year":"2013","unstructured":"Liba Z, Sebronova V, Komarek V, Sediva A, Sedlacek P. Prevalence and treatment of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Lancet Neurol. 2013;12:424\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1474-4422(13)70070-X.","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.4103\/0366-6999.222327","volume":"131","author":"XZ Yang","year":"2018","unstructured":"Yang XZ, Zhu HD, Ren HT, Zhu YC, Peng B, Cui LY, et al. Utility and safety of intrathecal methotrexate treatment in severe anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis: a pilot study. Chin Med J (Engl). 2018;131:156\u201360.","journal-title":"Chin Med J (Engl)"},{"key":"943_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.12545","volume":"57","author":"S Tatencloux","year":"2015","unstructured":"Tatencloux S, Chretien P, Rogemond V, Honnorat J, Tardieu M, Deiva K. Intrathecal treatment of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis in children. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2015;57:95\u20139.","journal-title":"Dev Med Child Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang D, Wu Y, Ji Z, Wang S, Xu Y, Huang K, et al. A refractory anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis successfully treated by bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy and intrathecal injection of methotrexate and dexamethasone: a case report. J Int Med Res. 2020;48:300060520925666.","DOI":"10.1177\/0300060520925666"},{"key":"943_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2013.53.0808","volume":"32","author":"D Bhojwani","year":"2014","unstructured":"Bhojwani D, Sabin ND, Pei D, Yang JJ, Khan RB, Panetta JC, et al. Methotrexate-induced neurotoxicity and leukoencephalopathy in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Clin Oncol. 2014;32:949\u201359.","journal-title":"J Clin Oncol"},{"key":"943_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa044397","volume":"354","author":"CH Polman","year":"2006","unstructured":"Polman CH, O\u2019Connor PW, Havrdova E, Hutchinson M, Kappos L, Miller DH, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of natalizumab for relapsing multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:899\u2013910. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056\/NEJMoa044397.","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"943_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000439","volume":"5","author":"AF Hottinger","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hottinger AF, De Micheli R, Guido V, Karampera A, Hagmann P, Du Pasquier R. Natalizumab may control immune checkpoint inhibitor-induced limbic encephalitis. Neurol Neuroimmunol NeuroInflammation. 2018;5: e439.","journal-title":"Neurol Neuroimmunol NeuroInflammation."},{"key":"943_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2020.12.014","volume":"145","author":"S Basin","year":"2021","unstructured":"Basin S, Perrin J, Michot JM, Lambotte O, Cauquil C. Severe anti-PD1-related meningoencephalomyelitis successfully treated with anti-integrin alpha4 therapy. Eur J Cancer. 2021;145:230\u20133.","journal-title":"Eur J Cancer"},{"key":"943_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/noajnl\/vdab145\/6377299","volume":"3","author":"AEM Bastiaansen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bastiaansen AEM, de Jongste AHC, de Bruijn MAAM, Crijnen YS, Schreurs MWJ, Verbeek MM, et al. Phase II trial of natalizumab for the treatment of anti-Hu associated paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. Neurooncol Adv. 2021;3:1\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/noajnl\/vdab145\/6377299.","journal-title":"Neurooncol Adv"},{"key":"943_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1007\/s40120-022-00327-x","volume":"11","author":"KM Blackburn","year":"2022","unstructured":"Blackburn KM, Denney DA, Hopkins SC, Vernino SA. Low recruitment in a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of ocrelizumab for autoimmune encephalitis: a case series and review of lessons learned. Neurol Ther. 2022;11:893\u2013903. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40120-022-00327-x.","journal-title":"Neurol Ther."},{"key":"943_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1651","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.98.18_supplement.1651","volume":"98","author":"G Day","year":"2022","unstructured":"Day G, Titulaer M, Wong K-H, Torner J, Cudkowicz M, Coffey C, et al. The ExTINGUISH Trial: a phase-2B randomized placebo-controlled trial of inebilizumab in anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis (P5\u20131.004). Neurology. 2022;98:1651.","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"943_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13063-020-04516-7","volume":"21","author":"J Wickel","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wickel J, Chung HY, Platzer S, Lehmann T, Pr\u00fcss H, Leypoldt F, et al. Generate-Boost: study protocol for a prospective, multicenter, randomized controlled, double-blinded phase II trial to evaluate efficacy and safety of bortezomib in patients with severe autoimmune encephalitis. Trials. 2020;21:1\u201312.","journal-title":"Trials"},{"key":"943_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.25421","volume":"85","author":"JA Lim","year":"2019","unstructured":"Lim JA, Lee ST, Moon J, Jun JS, Kim TJ, Shin YW, et al. Development of the clinical assessment scale in autoimmune encephalitis. Ann Neurol. 2019;85:352\u20138.","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"943_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000003545","volume":"88","author":"S R\u00fcegg","year":"2017","unstructured":"R\u00fcegg S, Irani SR. The trouble with plasma cells. Neurology. 2017;88:340\u20131.","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"943_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2020-325302","volume":"92","author":"H Abboud","year":"2021","unstructured":"Abboud H, Probasco JC, Irani S, Ances B, Benavides DR, Bradshaw M, et al. Autoimmune encephalitis: Proposed recommendations for symptomatic and long-term management. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2021;92:897\u2013907.","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"943_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1643","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-019-09306-z","volume":"266","author":"S Mariotto","year":"2019","unstructured":"Mariotto S, Gajofatto A, Zuliani L, Zoccarato M, Gastaldi M, Franciotta D, et al. Serum and CSF neurofilament light chain levels in antibody-mediated encephalitis. J Neurol. 2019;266:1643\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00415-019-09306-z.","journal-title":"J Neurol"}],"container-title":["CNS Drugs"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40263-022-00943-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40263-022-00943-z\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40263-022-00943-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]],"date-time":"2024-09-30T09:56:17Z","timestamp":1727690177000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s40263-022-00943-z"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,2]]},"references-count":76,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,9]]}},"alternative-id":["943"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40263-022-00943-z","relation":{},"ISSN":["1172-7047","1179-1934"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1172-7047","type":"print"},{"value":"1179-1934","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,2]]},"assertion":[{"value":"16 July 2022","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"2 August 2022","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u00a0Open access funding provided by Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Verona within the CRUI-CARE Agreement.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Funding"}},{"value":"Alessandro Dinoto, Sergio Ferrari, and Sara Mariotto have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this article.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflicts of interest\/Competing interests"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":6,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":7,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Availability of data and material"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":8,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Code availability"}},{"value":"AD: first draft of the manuscript, analysis and interpretation of data; SF: data interpretation, revised the manuscript for intellectual content; SM: data interpretation, manuscript draft revision, revised the manuscript for intellectual content.","order":9,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Authors\u2019 contributions"}}]}}