{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T00:27:57Z","timestamp":1792801677840,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":131,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,1]],"date-time":"2022-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648771200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,1]],"date-time":"2022-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648771200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Drugs"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-022-01701-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,2]],"date-time":"2022-04-02T10:05:11Z","timestamp":1648893911000},"page":"633-647","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":63,"title":["Benefits and Harms of \u2018Smart Drugs\u2019 (Nootropics) in Healthy Individuals"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"82","author":[{"given":"Fabrizio","family":"Schifano","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valeria","family":"Catalani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Safia","family":"Sharif","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Flavia","family":"Napoletano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John Martin","family":"Corkery","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Davide","family":"Arillotta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suzanne","family":"Fergus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alessandro","family":"Vento","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amira","family":"Guirguis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"1701_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X13666141210221750","volume":"13","author":"P Frati","year":"2015","unstructured":"Frati P, Kyriakou C, Del RA, Marinelli E, Vergallo GM, Zaami S, Busard\u00f2 FP. Smart drugs and synthetic androgens for cognitive and physical enhancement: revolving doors of cosmetic neurology. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2015;13:5.","journal-title":"Curr Neuropharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-009-9142-5","volume":"15","author":"N Bostrom","year":"2009","unstructured":"Bostrom N, Sandberg A. Cognitive enhancement: methods, ethics, regulatory challenges. Sci Eng Ethics. 2009;15:311\u201341.","journal-title":"Sci Eng Ethics"},{"issue":"3","key":"1701_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11030355","volume":"11","author":"S Sharif","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sharif S, Guirguis A, Fergus S, Schifano F. The use and impact of cognitive enhancers among university students: a systematic review. Brain Sci. 2021;11(3):355.","journal-title":"Brain Sci"},{"key":"1701_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-11914-2","volume":"21","author":"Y Fan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Fan Y, Zhang Y, Li J, Liu Y, Chang H, Jiang Y, et al. Association between healthy eating index-2015 and various cognitive domains in US adults aged 60 years or older: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011\u20132014. BMC Public Health. 2021;21:1\u201311.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"1701_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1097\/YPG.0b013e32833a1f3c","volume":"20","author":"A Hamidovic","year":"2010","unstructured":"Hamidovic A, Dlugos A, Palmer AA, De Wit H. Catechol-O-methyltransferase val158met genotype modulates sustained attention in both the drug-free state and in response to amphetamine. Psychiatr Genet. 2010;20:85.","journal-title":"Psychiatr Genet"},{"key":"1701_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parkreldis.2021.10.015","volume":"92","author":"TH Turner","year":"2021","unstructured":"Turner TH, Rodriguez-Porcel F, Lee P, Teague K, Heidelberg L, Jenkins S, et al. Executive function and dopamine response in Parkinson\u2019s disease freezing of gait. Parkinson Relat Disord. 2021;92:46\u201350.","journal-title":"Parkinson Relat Disord"},{"key":"1701_CR7","first-page":"115","volume":"25","author":"C Giurgea","year":"1972","unstructured":"Giurgea C. Pharmacology of integrative activity of the brain. Attempt at nootropic concept in psychopharmacology. Actual Pharmacol. 1972;25:115\u201356.","journal-title":"Actual Pharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"546796","DOI":"10.3389\/FPSYT.2020.546796","volume":"11","author":"F Napoletano","year":"2020","unstructured":"Napoletano F, Schifano F, Corkery J, Guirguis A, Arillotta D, Zangani C, et al. The psychonauts\u2019 world of cognitive enhancers. Front Psychiatry. 2020;11:546796. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/FPSYT.2020.546796.","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"1701_CR9","unstructured":"Million Insights Nootropics market to register 12.5% CAGR by 2025 owing to rising awareness regarding mental illness, growing expenditure on healthcare & wellness. 2021. https:\/\/www.prnewswire.com\/news-releases\/nootropics-market-to-register-12-5-cagr-by-2025-owing-to-rising-awareness-regarding-mental-illness-growing-expenditure-on-healthcare--wellness--million-insights-301247932.html. Accessed 30 Sep 2021"},{"key":"1701_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.8b00571","volume":"10","author":"M Dresler","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dresler M, Sandberg A, Bublitz C, Ohla K, Trenado C, Mroczko-W\u0105sowicz A, et al. Hacking the brain: dimensions of cognitive enhancement. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2018;10:1137\u201348.","journal-title":"ACS Chem Neurosci"},{"issue":"4","key":"1701_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X15666171103152136","volume":"16","author":"G Valentine","year":"2018","unstructured":"Valentine G, Sofuoglu M. Cognitive effects of nicotine: recent progress. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2018;16(4):403\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2174\/1570159X15666171103152136.","journal-title":"Curr Neuropharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113754","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2021.113754","volume":"342","author":"M Morelli","year":"2021","unstructured":"Morelli M, Tognotti E. Brief history of the medical and non-medical use of amphetamine-like psychostimulants. Exp Neurol. 2021;342:113754.","journal-title":"Exp Neurol"},{"key":"1701_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/1472-6939-15-37","volume":"15","author":"L Wade","year":"2014","unstructured":"Wade L, Forlini C, Racine E. Generating genius: how an Alzheimer\u2019s drug became considered a \u201ccognitive enhancer\u201d for healthy individuals. BMC Med Ethics. 2014;15:37. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1472-6939-15-37.","journal-title":"BMC Med Ethics"},{"key":"1701_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-2012-121537","volume":"33","author":"W Froestl","year":"2013","unstructured":"Froestl W, Muhs A, Pfeifer A. Cognitive enhancers (Nootropics). Part 2: drugs interacting with enzymes. J Alzheimer\u2019s Dis. 2013;33:547\u2013658.","journal-title":"J Alzheimer\u2019s Dis"},{"key":"1701_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-2012-121186","volume":"32","author":"W Froestl","year":"2012","unstructured":"Froestl W, Muhs A, Pfeifer A. Cognitive enhancers (nootropics). Part 1: drugs interacting with receptors. J Alzheimers Dis. 2012;32:793\u2013887.","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"1701_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-121729","volume":"34","author":"W Froestl","year":"2013","unstructured":"Froestl W, Pfeifer A, Muhs A. Cognitive enhancers (nootropics). Part 3: drugs interacting with targets other than receptors or enzymes disease-modifying drugs. J Alzheimers Dis. 2013;34:1\u2013114.","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"1701_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2008.02.004","volume":"57","author":"C Lanni","year":"2008","unstructured":"Lanni C, Lenzken SC, Pascale A, Del Vecchio I, Racchi M, Pistoia F, et al. Cognition enhancers between treating and doping the mind. Pharmacol Res. 2008;57:196\u2013213.","journal-title":"Pharmacol Res"},{"key":"1701_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.therap.2018.02.005","volume":"73","author":"L Carton","year":"2018","unstructured":"Carton L, Cab\u00e9 N, M\u00e9nard O, Deheul S, Caous AS, Devos D, et al. Pharmaceutical cognitive doping in students: A chimeric way to get-a-head? Therapies. 2018;73:331\u20139.","journal-title":"Therapies"},{"key":"1701_CR19","first-page":"657","volume":"7","author":"F Abad-Santos","year":"2002","unstructured":"Abad-Santos F, Novalbos-Reina J, Gallego-Sandin S, Garcia AG. Treatment of mild cognitive impairment: value of citicoline. Rev Neurol. 2002;7:657\u201382.","journal-title":"Rev Neurol"},{"key":"1701_CR20","first-page":"445","volume":"47","author":"J Corkery","year":"2011","unstructured":"Corkery J, Schifano F, Oyefeso A, Ghodse A, Tonia T, Naidoo V, et al. Overview of literature and information on \u201ckhat-related\u201d mortality: a call for recognition of the issue and further research. Ann Ist Super Sanita. 2011;47:445\u201364.","journal-title":"Ann Ist Super Sanita"},{"issue":"1","key":"1701_CR21","first-page":"1","volume":"111","author":"I Peri\u0107","year":"2021","unstructured":"Peri\u0107 I, Costina V, Djordjevi\u0107 S, Gass P, Findeisen P, Inta D, et al. Tianeptine modulates synaptic vesicle dynamics and favors synaptic mitochondria processes in socially isolated rats. Sci Rep. 2021;111(1):1\u201315.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"1701_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2017.10.032","volume":"21","author":"D Holgado","year":"2018","unstructured":"Holgado D, Zandonai T, Zabala M, Hopker J, Perakakis P, Luque-Casado A, et al. Tramadol effects on physical performance and sustained attention during a 20-min indoor cycling time-trial: a randomised controlled trial. J Sci Med Sport. 2018;21:654\u201360.","journal-title":"J Sci Med Sport"},{"issue":"5","key":"1701_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159x15666161111114838","volume":"15","author":"L Orsolini","year":"2017","unstructured":"Orsolini L, St John-Smith P, McQueen D, Papanti D, Corkery J, Schifano F. Evolutionary considerations on the emerging subculture of the e-psychonauts and the novel psychoactive substances: a comeback to the shamanism? Curr Neuropharmacol. 2017;15(5):731\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2174\/1570159x15666161111114838.","journal-title":"Curr Neuropharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S308598","volume":"17","author":"B Damiri","year":"2021","unstructured":"Damiri B, Safarini OA, Nazzal Z, et al. Eating disorders and the use of cognitive enhancers and psychostimulants among university students: a cross-sectional study. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2021;17:1633.","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat"},{"issue":"2","key":"1701_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1080\/0309877X20201753179","volume":"45","author":"H McDermott","year":"2020","unstructured":"McDermott H, Lane H. Alonso M (2020) Working smart: the use of \u2018cognitive enhancers\u2019 by UK university students. J Further Higher Educ. 2020;45(2):270\u201383. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/0309877X20201753179.","journal-title":"J Further Higher Educ"},{"key":"1701_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1111\/dar.13190","volume":"40","author":"M Nelson","year":"2021","unstructured":"Nelson M, Jensen C, Lenton S. Study drug use among university students in Western Australia: results of a web survey and their policy and practice implications. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2021;40:530\u20139.","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Rev"},{"issue":"5","key":"1701_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e15163","DOI":"10.7759\/CUREUS.15163","volume":"13","author":"N Plumber","year":"2021","unstructured":"Plumber N, Majeed M, Ziff S, Thomas SE, Bolla SR, Gorantla VR. Stimulant usage by medical students for cognitive enhancement: a systematic review. Cureus. 2021;13(5):e15163. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7759\/CUREUS.15163.","journal-title":"Cureus."},{"key":"1701_CR28","unstructured":"Marsh S. Universities must do more to tackle use of smart drugs, say experts. 2017. https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/education\/2017\/may\/10\/universities-do-more-tackle-smart-drugs-say-experts-uk-exams. Accessed 10 Sep 2021"},{"key":"1701_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2013.02.020","volume":"450\u2013451","author":"D Burgard","year":"2013","unstructured":"Burgard D, Fuller R, Becker B, Ferrell R, Dinglasan-Panlilio M. Potential trends in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) drug use on a college campus: wastewater analysis of amphetamine and ritalinic acid. Sci Total Environ. 2013;450\u2013451:242\u20139.","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"key":"1701_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2018.05.009","volume":"58","author":"L Maier","year":"2018","unstructured":"Maier L, Ferris J, Winstock A. Pharmacological cognitive enhancement among non-ADHD individuals-A cross-sectional study in 15 countries. Int J Drug Policy. 2018;58:104\u201312.","journal-title":"Int J Drug Policy"},{"key":"1701_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1007\/s10567-014-0177-z","volume":"18","author":"K Benson","year":"2015","unstructured":"Benson K, Flory K, Humphreys S, Lee L. Misuse of stimulant medication among college students: a comprehensive review and meta-analysis. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2015;18:50\u201376.","journal-title":"Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev"},{"key":"1701_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108410","DOI":"10.1016\/J.DRUGALCDEP.2020.108410","volume":"218","author":"K Ponnet","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ponnet K, Tholen R, De Bruyn S, Wouters E, Van Ouytsel J, Walrave M, et al. Students\u2019 stimulant use for cognitive enhancement: a deliberate choice rather than an emotional response to a given situation. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021;218:108410. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.DRUGALCDEP.2020.108410.","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend"},{"key":"1701_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e105969","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0105969","volume":"9","author":"I Singh","year":"2014","unstructured":"Singh I, Bard I, Jackson J. Robust resilience and substantial interest: a survey of pharmacological cognitive enhancement among university students in the UK and Ireland. PLoS\u00a0One. 2014;9:e105969.","journal-title":"PLoS\u00a0One"},{"key":"1701_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1248\/yakushi.20-00113","volume":"140","author":"M Yamamoto","year":"2020","unstructured":"Yamamoto M, Ishii Y. Questionnaire survey concerning pharmacological cognitive enhancement among undergraduates [in Japanese]. Yakugaku Zasshi. 2020;140:1397\u2013403.","journal-title":"Yakugaku Zasshi"},{"issue":"1","key":"1701_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e6688","DOI":"10.7759\/CUREUS.6688","volume":"12","author":"FA Alrakaf","year":"2020","unstructured":"Alrakaf FA, Binyousef FH, Altammami AF, Alharbi AA, Shadid A, Alrahili N. Illicit stimulant use among medical students in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Cureus. 2020;12(1):e6688. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7759\/CUREUS.6688.","journal-title":"Cureus."},{"key":"1701_CR36","first-page":"1875","volume":"18","author":"J-A Micoulaud-Franchi","year":"2014","unstructured":"Micoulaud-Franchi J-A, MacGregor A, Fond G. A preliminary study on cognitive enhancer consumption behaviors and motives of French Medicine and Pharmacology students. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2014;18:1875\u20138.","journal-title":"Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci"},{"key":"1701_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1080\/10826084.2019.1691597","volume":"55","author":"B de Oliveira Cata Preta","year":"2020","unstructured":"de Oliveira Cata Preta B, Miranda V, Bertoldi A. Psychostimulant use for neuroenhancement (smart drugs) among college students in Brazil. Subst Use Misuse. 2020;55:613\u201321.","journal-title":"Subst Use Misuse"},{"key":"1701_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.848","volume":"22","author":"I Zeeuws","year":"2007","unstructured":"Zeeuws I, Soetens E. Verbal memory performance improved via an acute administration of D-amphetamine. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2007;22:279\u201387.","journal-title":"Hum Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-018-4849-0","volume":"235","author":"P Dolder","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dolder P, Strajhar P, Vizeli P, Odermatt A, Liechti M. Acute effects of lisdexamfetamine and D-amphetamine on social cognition and cognitive performance in a placebo-controlled study in healthy subjects. Psychopharmacology. 2018;235:1389\u2013402.","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"1701_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2020.07.002","volume":"38","author":"C Roberts","year":"2020","unstructured":"Roberts C, Jones A, Sumnall H, Gage S, Montgomery C. How effective are pharmaceuticals for cognitive enhancement in healthy adults? A series of meta-analyses of cognitive performance during acute administration of modafinil, methylphenidate and D-amphetamine. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2020;38:40\u201362.","journal-title":"Eur Neuropsychopharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2815","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-021-05897-6","volume":"238","author":"J Hoots","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hoots J, Webber H, Nunez C, Cooper J, Lopez-Gamundi P, Lawlor V, et al. Acute drug effects differentially predict desire to take dextroamphetamine again for work and recreation. Psychopharmacology. 2021;238:2815\u201326.","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"1701_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1111\/gbb.12012","volume":"12","author":"MC Wardle","year":"2013","unstructured":"Wardle MC, Hart AB, Palmer AA, De Wit H. Does COMT genotype influence the effects of d-amphetamine on executive functioning? Genes Brain Behav. 2013;12:13.","journal-title":"Genes Brain Behav"},{"key":"1701_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-003-1730-5","volume":"173","author":"F Schifano","year":"2004","unstructured":"Schifano F. A bitter pill. Overview of ecstasy (MDMA, MDA) related fatalities. Psychopharmacology. 2004;173:242\u20138.","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"1701_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2014.03.008","volume":"87","author":"E de Sousa Fernandes Perna","year":"2014","unstructured":"de Sousa Fernandes Perna E, Theunissen E, Kuypers K, Heckman P, de la Torre R, Farre M, et al. Memory and mood during MDMA intoxication, with and without memantine pretreatment. Neuropharmacology. 2014;87:198\u2013205.","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"1701_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1017\/S1461145713001594","volume":"17","author":"A Linssen","year":"2014","unstructured":"Linssen A, Sambeth A, Vuurman E, Riedel W. Cognitive effects of methylphenidate in healthy volunteers: a review of single dose studies. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;17:961\u201377.","journal-title":"Int J Neuropsychopharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1590\/S1980-5764-2016DN1002009","volume":"10","author":"S Batistela","year":"2016","unstructured":"Batistela S, Bueno O, Vaz L, Galdur\u00f3z J. Methylphenidate as a cognitive enhancer in healthy young people. Dement Neuropsychol. 2016;10:134\u201342.","journal-title":"Dement Neuropsychol."},{"key":"1701_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881117731472","volume":"32","author":"C Klinge","year":"2018","unstructured":"Klinge C, Shuttleworth C, Muglia P, Nobre A, Harmer C, Murphy S. Methylphenidate enhances implicit learning in healthy adults. J Psychopharmacol. 2018;32:70\u201380.","journal-title":"J Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-020-05691-w","volume":"238","author":"D Repantis","year":"2021","unstructured":"Repantis D, Bovy L, Ohla K, K\u00fchn S, Dresler M. Cognitive enhancement effects of stimulants: a randomized controlled trial testing methylphenidate, modafinil, and caffeine. Psychopharmacology. 2021;238:441\u201351.","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"1701_CR49","first-page":"117","volume":"35","author":"A Kumar","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kumar A, Gupta V, Sharma S. Donepezil. Profiles Drug Subst Excipients Relat Methodol. 2021;35:117\u201350.","journal-title":"Profiles Drug Subst Excipients Relat Methodol."},{"key":"1701_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.59.1.123","volume":"59","author":"J Yesavage","year":"2002","unstructured":"Yesavage J, Mumenthaler M, Taylor J, Friedman L, O\u2019Hara R, Sheikh J, et al. Donepezil and flight simulator performance: effects on retention of complex skills. Neurology. 2002;59:123\u20135.","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"1701_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881104040248","volume":"18","author":"L Beglinger","year":"2004","unstructured":"Beglinger L, Gaydos B, Kareken D, Tangphao-Daniels O, Siemers E, Mohs R. Neuropsychological test performance in healthy volunteers before and after donepezil administration. J Psychopharmacol. 2004;18:102\u20138.","journal-title":"J Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1508","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881110391832","volume":"25","author":"G Ginani","year":"2011","unstructured":"Ginani G, Tufik S, Bueno O, Pradella-Hallinan M, Rusted J, Pomp\u00e9ia S. Acute effects of donepezil in healthy young adults underline the fractionation of executive functioning. J Psychopharmacol. 2011;25:1508\u201316.","journal-title":"J Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.1044","volume":"24","author":"A Zaninotto","year":"2009","unstructured":"Zaninotto A, Bueno O, Pradella-Hallinan M, Tufik S, Rusted J, Stough C, et al. Acute cognitive effects of donepezil in young, healthy volunteers. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2009;24:453\u201364.","journal-title":"Hum Psychopharmacol"},{"issue":"9","key":"1701_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e24126","DOI":"10.1371\/JOURNAL.PONE.0024126","volume":"6","author":"JH Balsters","year":"2011","unstructured":"Balsters JH, O\u2019Connell RG, Martin MP, et al. Donepezil impairs memory in healthy older subjects: behavioural, EEG and simultaneous EEG\/fMRI biomarkers. PLoS\u00a0One. 2011;6(9):e24126. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/JOURNAL.PONE.0024126.","journal-title":"PLoS\u00a0One"},{"key":"1701_CR55","first-page":"61","volume":"Suppl 48","author":"S Yasar","year":"1996","unstructured":"Yasar S, Goldberg J, Goldberg S. Are metabolites of l-deprenyl (selegiline) useful or harmful? Indications from preclinical research. J Neural Transm. 1996;Suppl 48:61\u201373.","journal-title":"J Neural Transm"},{"key":"1701_CR56","first-page":"45","volume":"Suppl 48","author":"W Tatton","year":"1996","unstructured":"Tatton W, Wadia J, Ju W, Chalmers-Redman R, Tatton N. (-)-Deprenyl reduces neuronal apoptosis and facilitates neuronal outgrowth by altering protein synthesis without inhibiting monoamine oxidase. J Neural Transm. 1996;Suppl 48:45\u201359.","journal-title":"J Neural Transm"},{"key":"1701_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/0091-3057(94)90109-0","volume":"47","author":"D Gelowitz","year":"1994","unstructured":"Gelowitz D, Richardson J, Wishart T, Yu P, Lai C. Chronic L-deprenyl or L-amphetamine: equal cognitive enhancement, unequal MAO inhibition. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1994;47:41\u20135.","journal-title":"Pharmacol Biochem Behav"},{"key":"1701_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"974013","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/974013","volume":"2012","author":"P Goverdhan","year":"2012","unstructured":"Goverdhan P, Sravanthi A, Mamatha T. Neuroprotective effects of meloxicam and selegiline in scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment and oxidative stress. Int J Alzheimers Dis. 2012;2012:974013. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2012\/974013.","journal-title":"Int J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"1701_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1006\/exnr.2000.7484","volume":"166","author":"J Zhu","year":"2000","unstructured":"Zhu J, Hamm R, Reeves T, Povlishock J, Phillips L. Postinjury administration of L-deprenyl improves cognitive function and enhances neuroplasticity after traumatic brain injury. Exp Neurol. 2000;166:136\u201352.","journal-title":"Exp Neurol"},{"key":"1701_CR60","first-page":"1349","volume":"33","author":"H Yang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Yang H, Han W, Li H. Efficacy and safety of MAO-B inhibitor versus donepezil in Chinese elderly stroke patients with Alzheimer disease: a potential therapeutic option. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2020;33:1349\u201354.","journal-title":"Pak J Pharm Sci"},{"key":"1701_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2012007","DOI":"10.5620\/eht.2012.27.e2012007","volume":"27","author":"K Dongsoo","year":"2012","unstructured":"Dongsoo K. Practical use and risk of modafinil, a novel waking drug. Environ Health Toxicol. 2012;27:e2012007.","journal-title":"Environ Health Toxicol"},{"key":"1701_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1080\/21556660.2020.1745209","volume":"9","author":"SM Hashemian","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hashemian SM, Farhadi T. A review on modafinil: the characteristics, function, and use in critical care. J Drug Assess. 2020;9:82.","journal-title":"J Drug Assess"},{"key":"1701_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-013-3232-4","volume":"229","author":"M Mereu","year":"2013","unstructured":"Mereu M, Bonci A, Newman A, Tanda G. The neurobiology of modafinil as an enhancer of cognitive performance and a potential treatment for substance use disorders. Psychopharmacology. 2013;229:415\u201334.","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"1701_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0000000000001085","volume":"39","author":"M Kredlow","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kredlow M, Keshishian A, Oppenheimer S, Otto M. The efficacy of modafinil as a cognitive enhancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2019;39:455\u201361.","journal-title":"J Clin Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e6166","DOI":"10.5867\/medwave.2015.05.6166","volume":"15","author":"A Fern\u00e1ndez","year":"2015","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez A, Mascayano F, Lips W, Painel A, Norambuena J, Madrid E. Effects of modafinil on attention performance, short-term memory and executive function in university students: a randomized trial. Medwave. 2015;15:e6166.","journal-title":"Medwave"},{"key":"1701_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-002-1250-8","volume":"165","author":"D Turner","year":"2003","unstructured":"Turner D, Robbins T, Clark L, Aron A, Dowson J, Sahakiandc B. Cognitive enhancing effects of modafinil in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology. 2003;165:260\u20139.","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"1701_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2014.01.001","volume":"24","author":"J Gilleen","year":"2014","unstructured":"Gilleen J, Michalopoulou P, Reichenberg A, Drake R, Wykes T, Lewis S, et al. Modafinil combined with cognitive training is associated with improved learning in healthy volunteers\u2014a randomised controlled trial. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;24:529\u201339.","journal-title":"Eur Neuropsychopharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2015.07.028","volume":"25","author":"RM Battleday","year":"2015","unstructured":"Battleday RM, Brem AK. Modafinil for cognitive neuroenhancement in healthy non-sleep-deprived subjects: a systematic review. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2015;25:1865\u201381.","journal-title":"Eur Neuropsychopharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2012.07.009","volume":"64","author":"U M\u00fcller","year":"2013","unstructured":"M\u00fcller U, Rowe JB, Rittman T, Lewis C, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ. Effects of modafinil on non-verbal cognition, task enjoyment and creative thinking in healthy volunteers. Neuropharmacology. 2013;64:490.","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"1701_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2358","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291717000885","volume":"47","author":"J Lees","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lees J, Michalopoulou P, Lewis S, et al. Modafinil and cognitive enhancement in schizophrenia and healthy volunteers: the effects of test battery in a randomised controlled trial. Psychol Med. 2017;47:2358\u201368.","journal-title":"Psychol Med"},{"issue":"14","key":"1701_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1849","DOI":"10.3109\/10826084.2014.912232","volume":"49","author":"O Corazza","year":"2014","unstructured":"Corazza O, Bersani FS, Brunoro R, Valeriani G, Martinotti G, Schifano F. The diffusion of performance and image-enhancing drugs (PIEDs) on the internet: the abuse of the cognitive enhancer piracetam. Subst Use Misuse. 2014;49(14):1849\u201356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3109\/10826084.2014.912232.","journal-title":"Subst Use Misuse"},{"key":"1701_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1527-3458.2005.tb00268.x","volume":"11","author":"B Winblad","year":"2005","unstructured":"Winblad B. Piracetam: a review of pharmacological properties and clinical uses. CNS Drug Rev. 2005;11:169\u201382.","journal-title":"CNS Drug Rev"},{"key":"1701_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/0741-8329(95)02050-0","volume":"13","author":"F Brand\u00e3o","year":"1996","unstructured":"Brand\u00e3o F, Cadete-Leite A, Andrade J, Madeira M, Paula-Barbosa M. Piracetam promotes mossy fiber synaptic reorganization in rats withdrawn from alcohol. Alcohol. 1996;13:239\u201349.","journal-title":"Alcohol"},{"key":"1701_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2197","DOI":"10.1021\/jm901905j","volume":"53","author":"AH Ahmed","year":"2010","unstructured":"Ahmed AH, Oswald RE. Piracetam defines a new binding site for allosteric modulators of \u03b1-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors. J Med Chem. 2010;53:2197.","journal-title":"J Med Chem"},{"key":"1701_CR75","unstructured":"Catalani V, Botha M, Corkery JM, Guirguis A, Vento A, Schifano F. Cognitive enhancers: computational models on benzodiazepines and racetams identified online. [webinar presentation]. Analytical Toxicology for Novel Psychoactive Substances Webinar, ISSED 2021, online. https:\/\/issed.net\/."},{"key":"1701_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1159\/000119026","volume":"28","author":"C Michel","year":"1993","unstructured":"Michel C, Lehmann D. Single doses of piracetam affect 42-channel event-related potential microstate maps in a cognitive paradigm. Neuropsychobiology. 1993;28:212\u201321.","journal-title":"Neuropsychobiology"},{"key":"1701_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-8760(99)00044-6","volume":"34","author":"I Kondakor","year":"1999","unstructured":"Kondakor I, Michel C, Wackermann J, Koenig T, Tanaka H, Peuvot J, et al. Single-dose piracetam effects on global complexity measures of human spontaneous multichannel EEG. Int J Psychophysiol. 1999;34:81\u20137.","journal-title":"Int J Psychophysiol"},{"key":"1701_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1097\/00002826-198609003-00011","volume":"3","author":"TM Itil","year":"1986","unstructured":"Itil TM, Menon GN, Songar A, Itil KZ. CNS pharmacology and clinical therapeutic effects of oxiracetam\u2014PubMed. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1986;3:70\u20132.","journal-title":"Clin Neuropharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5958","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2009.08.027","volume":"19","author":"B Buettelmann","year":"2009","unstructured":"Buettelmann B, Ballard T, Gasser R, Fischer H, Hernandez M, Knoflach F, et al. Imidazo[1,5-a][1,2,4]-triazolo[1,5-d][1,4]benzodiazepines as potent and highly selective GABAA alpha5 inverse agonists with potential for the treatment of cognitive dysfunction. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2009;19:5958\u201361.","journal-title":"Bioorg Med Chem Lett"},{"key":"1701_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.3109\/14756366.2015.1021252","volume":"31","author":"F Gualtieri","year":"2016","unstructured":"Gualtieri F. Unifi nootropics from the lab to the web: a story of academic (and industrial) shortcomings. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem. 2016;31:187\u201394.","journal-title":"J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem"},{"key":"1701_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmc.2007.10.050","volume":"16","author":"E Martini","year":"2008","unstructured":"Martini E, Ghelardini C, Dei S, Guandalini L, Manetti D, Melchiorre M, et al. Design, synthesis and preliminary pharmacological evaluation of new piperidine and piperazine derivatives as cognition-enhancers. Bioorg Med Chem. 2008;16:1431\u201343.","journal-title":"Bioorg Med Chem"},{"key":"1701_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmc.2017.02.019","volume":"25","author":"MV Martino","year":"2017","unstructured":"Martino MV, Guandalini L, Di Cesare ML, Menicatti M, Bartolucci G, Dei S, et al. Piperazines as nootropic agents: new derivatives of the potent cognition-enhancer DM235 carrying hydrophilic substituents. Bioorg Med Chem. 2017;25:1795\u2013803.","journal-title":"Bioorg Med Chem"},{"key":"1701_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-003-0812-6","volume":"368","author":"N Galeotti","year":"2003","unstructured":"Galeotti N, Ghelardini C, Pittaluga A, Pugliese A, Bartolini A, Manetti D, et al. AMPA-receptor activation is involved in the antiamnesic effect of DM 232 (unifiram) and DM 235 (sunifiram). Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2003;368:538\u201345.","journal-title":"Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-815298-0.00023-X","volume-title":"Cognition and addiction","author":"MR Peltier","year":"2020","unstructured":"Peltier MR, Sofuoglu M. Pharmacological cognitive enhancers. In: Verdejo-Garcia A, editor. Cognition and addiction. New York: Elsevier; 2020. p. 303\u201320."},{"key":"1701_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.3389\/FPSYT.2020.00053","volume":"11","author":"G Ricci","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ricci G. Pharmacological human enhancement: an overview of the looming bioethical and regulatory challenges. Front Psychiatry. 2020;11:53. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/FPSYT.2020.00053.","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry."},{"key":"1701_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4172\/2155-9627.1000213","volume":"6","author":"G Fond","year":"2015","unstructured":"Fond G, Micoulaud-Franchi J, Macgregor A, Richieri R, Lancon C, Repantis D. Neuroenhancement in healthy adults, Part I: pharmaceutical cognitive enhancement: a systematic review. J Clin Res Bioeth. 2015;6:1\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4172\/2155-9627.1000213.","journal-title":"J Clin Res Bioeth."},{"key":"1701_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.20174","volume":"14","author":"F Schifano","year":"2015","unstructured":"Schifano F, Orsolini L, Duccio Papanti G, Corkery JM. Novel psychoactive substances of interest for psychiatry. World Psychiatry. 2015;14:15\u201326.","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"issue":"13","key":"1701_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6944","DOI":"10.3390\/IJERPH18136944","volume":"18","author":"G Martinotti","year":"2021","unstructured":"Martinotti G, Merino Del Villar C, Cordoba GL, Tubau A, S\u00e1nchez C, Di Carlo F, et al. Club drugs and psychiatric sequelae: an issue of vulnerability and previous psychiatric history. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(13):6944. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/IJERPH18136944.","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"1701_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1007\/7854_2016_15","volume":"32","author":"F Schifano","year":"2017","unstructured":"Schifano F, Orsolini L, Papanti D, Corkery J. NPS: medical consequences associated with their intake. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. 2017;32:351\u201380.","journal-title":"Curr Top Behav Neurosci"},{"issue":"3","key":"1701_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-016-2137-0","volume":"42","author":"J M\u00e1rquez","year":"2017","unstructured":"M\u00e1rquez J, Campos-Sandoval JA, Pe\u00f1alver A, Mat\u00e9s JM, Segura JA, Blanco E, et al. Glutamate and brain glutaminases in drug addiction. Neurochem Res. 2017;42(3):846\u201357.","journal-title":"Neurochem Res"},{"key":"1701_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2004.08.019","volume":"57","author":"AFT Arnsten","year":"2005","unstructured":"Arnsten AFT, Li BM. Neurobiology of executive functions: catecholamine influences on prefrontal cortical functions. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57:1377\u201384.","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"1701_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nlm.2013.01.004","volume":"101","author":"K Urban","year":"2013","unstructured":"Urban K, Li Y, Gao W. Treatment with a clinically-relevant dose of methylphenidate alters NMDA receptor composition and synaptic plasticity in the juvenile rat prefrontal cortex. Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2013;101:65\u201374.","journal-title":"Neurobiol Learn Mem"},{"key":"1701_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2014.00038","volume":"8","author":"KR Urban","year":"2014","unstructured":"Urban KR, Gao W-J. Performance enhancement at the cost of potential brain plasticity: neural ramifications of nootropic drugs in the healthy developing brain. Front Syst Neurosci. 2014;8:38.","journal-title":"Front Syst Neurosci"},{"key":"1701_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nlm.2020.107342","volume":"178","author":"LN Whitehurst","year":"2021","unstructured":"Whitehurst LN, Mednick SC. Psychostimulants may block long-term memory formation via degraded sleep in healthy adults. Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2021;178:107342.","journal-title":"Neurobiol Learn Mem"},{"key":"1701_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1055\/a-1207-9851","volume":"53","author":"B Kis","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kis B, L\u00fccke C, Abdel-Hamid M, et al. Safety profile of methylphenidate under long-term treatment in adult ADHD patients\u2014results of the COMPAS study. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2020;53:263\u201371.","journal-title":"Pharmacopsychiatry"},{"issue":"9","key":"1701_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1089\/CAP.2021.0034","volume":"31","author":"MD Weiss","year":"2021","unstructured":"Weiss MD, Cutler AJ, Kollins SH, Donnelly GAE. Efficacy and safety of a long-acting multilayer-release methylphenidate formulation (PRC-063) in the treatment of adolescent attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: a randomized, double-blind clinical trial with a 6-month open-label extension. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2021;31(9):610\u201322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/CAP.2021.0034.","journal-title":"J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0000000000001336","volume":"41","author":"G Koren","year":"2021","unstructured":"Koren G, Korn L. The use of methylphenidate for cognitive enhancement in young healthy adults: the clinical and ethical debates. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2021;41:100\u20132.","journal-title":"J Clin Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR98","first-page":"3","volume":"23","author":"J Carlier","year":"2019","unstructured":"Carlier J, Giorgetti R, Var\u00ec M, Pirani F, Ricci G, Busard\u00f2 F. Use of cognitive enhancers: methylphenidate and analogs. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2019;23:3\u201315.","journal-title":"Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci"},{"key":"1701_CR99","unstructured":"Tomen D. Do Brain Enhancing \u201cDrugs\u201d Work? Know the Risks. 2020. https:\/\/nootropicsexpert.com\/do-brain-enhancing-drugs-work-know-the-risks\/. Accessed 30 Sep 2021"},{"key":"1701_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1038\/clpt.1994.205","volume":"56","author":"LS Schneider","year":"1994","unstructured":"Schneider LS, Tariot PN, Goldstein B. Therapy with l-deprenyl (selegiline) and relation to abuse liability. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1994;56:750\u20136.","journal-title":"Clin Pharmacol Ther"},{"key":"1701_CR101","unstructured":"Greenblatt K, Adams N. Modafinil. StatPearls; 2020. https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK531476\/. Accessed 3 Mar 2022."},{"key":"1701_CR102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.1002\/pds.4642","volume":"27","author":"S Kaplan","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kaplan S, Goehring EL, Melamed-Gal S, Nguyen-Khoa BA, Knebel H, Jones JK. Modafinil and the risk of cardiovascular events: findings from three US claims databases. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2018;27:1182\u201390.","journal-title":"Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"1701_CR103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1093\/MILMED\/USAB398","volume":"187","author":"M Van Puyvelde","year":"2022","unstructured":"Van Puyvelde M, Van Cutsem J, Lacroix E, Pattyn N. A state-of-the-art review on the use of modafinil as a performance-enhancing drug in the context of military operationality. Mil Med. 2022;187(1\u20132):52\u201364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/MILMED\/USAB398.","journal-title":"Mil Med"},{"key":"1701_CR104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.7b00374","volume":"9","author":"E Murillo-Rodr\u00edguez","year":"2018","unstructured":"Murillo-Rodr\u00edguez E, Barciela Veras A, Barbosa Rocha N, Budde H, Machado S. An overview of the clinical uses, pharmacology, and safety of modafinil. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2018;9:151\u20138.","journal-title":"ACS Chem Neurosci"},{"key":"1701_CR105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-15-6771-1_5","volume-title":"Chemically Modified minds: substance use for cognitive enhancement","author":"M Hall","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hall M, Forshaw M, Montgomery C. Being limitless: a discursive analysis of online accounts of modafinil use. In: Hall M, Forshaw M, Montgomery C, editors. Chemically Modified minds: substance use for cognitive enhancement. Berlin: SpringerLink; 2021. p. 81\u201399."},{"key":"1701_CR106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1007\/s11325-019-01925-0","volume":"24","author":"M Savarese","year":"2019","unstructured":"Savarese M, Di Perri MC. Excessive sleepiness in shift work disorder: a narrative review of the last 5 years. Sleep Breath. 2019;24:297\u2013310.","journal-title":"Sleep Breath"},{"key":"1701_CR107","unstructured":"Benjamin M. The ultimate guide to armodafinil in 2021. UK nootropics review. 2020. https:\/\/www.brainzyme.com\/blogs\/nootropics-uk\/armodafinil. Accessed 16 Nov 2021."},{"key":"1701_CR108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8823383","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/8823383","volume":"2021","author":"J Daubner","year":"2021","unstructured":"Daubner J, Arshaad MI, Henseler C, Hescheler J, Ehninger D, Broich K, et al. Pharmacological neuroenhancement: current aspects of categorization, epidemiology, pharmacology, drug development, ethics, and future perspectives. Neural Plast. 2021;2021:8823383. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2021\/8823383.","journal-title":"Neural Plast"},{"key":"1701_CR109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.3389\/FNINS.2019.00472","volume":"13","author":"D-D Li","year":"2019","unstructured":"Li D-D, Zhang Y-H, Zhang W, Zhao P. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on the efficacy and safety of donepezil, galantamine, rivastigmine, and memantine for the treatment of alzheimer\u2019s disease. Front Neurosci. 2019;13:472. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/FNINS.2019.00472.","journal-title":"Front Neurosci"},{"key":"1701_CR110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1177\/1060028013510699","volume":"48","author":"A Sharma","year":"2014","unstructured":"Sharma A, Couture J. A review of the pathophysiology, etiology, and treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Ann Pharmacother. 2014;48:209\u201325.","journal-title":"Ann Pharmacother"},{"key":"1701_CR111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1080\/14656566.2017.1323877","volume":"18","author":"U Kallweit","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kallweit U, Bassetti CL. Pharmacological management of narcolepsy with and without cataplexy. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2017;18:809\u201317.","journal-title":"Expert Opin Pharmacother"},{"key":"1701_CR112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2015.07.006","volume":"229","author":"G Fond","year":"2015","unstructured":"Fond G, Micoulaud-Franchi JA, Brunel L, Macgregor A, Miot S, Lopez R, et al. Innovative mechanisms of action for pharmaceutical cognitive enhancement: a systematic review. Psychiatry Res. 2015;229:12\u201320.","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"key":"1701_CR113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2007.12.001","volume":"32","author":"R de Jongh","year":"2008","unstructured":"de Jongh R, Bolt I, Schermer M, Olivier B. Botox for the brain: enhancement of cognition, mood and pro-social behavior and blunting of unwanted memories. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2008;32:760\u201376.","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"issue":"6","key":"1701_CR114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0129805","DOI":"10.1371\/JOURNAL.PONE.0129805","volume":"10","author":"L Maier","year":"2015","unstructured":"Maier L, Wunderli M, Vonmoos M, R\u00f6mmelt A, Baumgartner M, Seifritz E, et al. Pharmacological cognitive enhancement in healthy individuals: a compensation for cognitive deficits or a question of personality? PLoS\u00a0One. 2015;10(6):e0129805. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/JOURNAL.PONE.0129805.","journal-title":"PLoS\u00a0One"},{"key":"1701_CR115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"730167","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.730167","volume":"12","author":"S Zaami","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zaami S, Minutillo A, Sirignano A, Marinelli E. Effects of appearance- and performance-enhancing drugs on personality traits. Front Psychiatry. 2021;12:730167.","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"1701_CR116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1017\/S146114571100037X","volume":"15","author":"A Mohamed","year":"2012","unstructured":"Mohamed A, Sahakian B. The ethics of elective psychopharmacology. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2012;15:559\u201371.","journal-title":"Int J Neuropsychopharmacol"},{"issue":"1677","key":"1701_CR117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1098\/RSTB.2014.0214","volume":"370","author":"BJ Sahakian","year":"2015","unstructured":"Sahakian BJ, Bruhl AB, Cook J, et al. The impact of neuroscience on society: cognitive enhancement in neuropsychiatric disorders and in healthy people. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci. 2015;370(1677):214. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/RSTB.2014.0214.","journal-title":"Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci"},{"key":"1701_CR118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/1472-6939-15-20","volume":"15","author":"C Beyer","year":"2014","unstructured":"Beyer C, Staunton C, Moodley K. The implications of methylphenidate use by healthy medical students and doctors in South Africa. BMC Med Ethics. 2014;15:20. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1472-6939-15-20.","journal-title":"BMC Med Ethics"},{"key":"1701_CR119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Jaha R, Kolak T, Hela\u0107 H, \u0106esir H, Sarajli\u0107 E, Spahi\u0107 M. Smartdrugs: Mechanisms of Action and Ethical Issues. In: Badnjevic A, GurbetaPokvi\u0107 L (eds). CMBEBIH 2021. IFMBE Proceedings, Vol 84. Cham: Springer; 2021. pp 462\u2013468. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-73909-6_53.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-73909-6_53"},{"key":"1701_CR120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0241968","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0241968","volume":"15","author":"S Ram","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ram S, Russell B, Kirkpatrick C, Stewart K, Scahill S, Henning M, et al. Professionals\u2019 attitudes towards the use of cognitive enhancers in academic settings. PLoS\u00a0One. 2020;15:e0241968.","journal-title":"PLoS\u00a0One"},{"key":"1701_CR121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.78","volume":"2","author":"SE Lakhan","year":"2012","unstructured":"Lakhan SE, Kirchgessner A. Prescription stimulants in individuals with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: misuse, cognitive impact, and adverse effects. Brain Behav. 2012;2:661\u201377.","journal-title":"Brain Behav"},{"key":"1701_CR122","unstructured":"Alcohol and Drug Foundation. Nootropics. 2019. https:\/\/adf.org.au\/drug-facts\/cognitive-enhancers\/. Accessed 29 Sep 2021."},{"key":"1701_CR123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1007\/s40263-020-00758-w","volume":"34","author":"A Kapur","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kapur A. Is methylphenidate beneficial and safe in pharmacological cognitive enhancement? CNS Drugs. 2020;34:1045\u201362.","journal-title":"CNS Drugs"},{"issue":"4","key":"1701_CR124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858420945971","volume":"27","author":"LS Colzato","year":"2021","unstructured":"Colzato LS, Hommel B, Beste C. The downsides of cognitive enhancement. Neuroscientist. 2021;27(4):322\u201330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1073858420945971.","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"1701_CR125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.18778\/0208-6107.32.03","volume":"32","author":"P Rudra","year":"2018","unstructured":"Rudra P. Ethical underpinning and implications of \u201cnootropic\u201d concept. Acta Univ Lodz Folia Philos Ethica Aestheticaract. 2018;32:31\u201345.","journal-title":"Acta Univ Lodz Folia Philos Ethica Aestheticaract"},{"key":"1701_CR126","first-page":"134","volume-title":"Routledge handbook of neuroethics","author":"SP Mann","year":"2018","unstructured":"Mann SP, Sahakian BJ. Modafinil and the increasing lifestyle use of smart drugs by healthy people: neuroethical and societal issues\u2014PsycNET. In: Johnson LSM, Rommelfanger KS, editors. Routledge handbook of neuroethics. Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group; 2018. p. 134\u201349."},{"key":"1701_CR127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2514","DOI":"10.18294\/sc.2020.2514","volume":"16","author":"B De Castro","year":"2020","unstructured":"De Castro B, Brand\u00e3o E. Circulation of information on drugs and other substances to increase cognitive performance: a study of a Brazilian blog (2015\u20132017) [in Spanish]. Salude Collect. 2020;16:e2514. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18294\/sc.2020.2514.","journal-title":"Salude Collect"},{"key":"1701_CR128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.2466","volume":"30","author":"L Orsolini","year":"2015","unstructured":"Orsolini L, Francesconi G, Papanti D, Giorgetti A, Schifano F. Profiling online recreational\/prescription drugs\u2019 customers and overview of drug vending virtual marketplaces. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2015;30:302\u201318.","journal-title":"Hum Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"1701_CR129","first-page":"977","volume":"142","author":"JM Keppel Hesselink","year":"1998","unstructured":"Keppel Hesselink JM. Smart drugs\u2019 enticements on the Internet. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 1998;142:977\u201380.","journal-title":"Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd"},{"key":"1701_CR130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"717955","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.717955","volume":"12","author":"I Bojani\u0107","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bojani\u0107 I, Sund ER, Bjerkeset O, Sivertsen B, Sletvold H. Psychological distress and use of psychotropic drugs among university students\u2014the SHoT study, Norway. Front Psychiatry. 2021;12:717955.","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"issue":"27","key":"1701_CR131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-021-00294-w","volume":"272","author":"E Racine","year":"2021","unstructured":"Racine E, Sattler S, Boehlen W. Cognitive enhancement: unanswered questions about human psychology and social behavior. Sci Eng Ethics. 2021;272(27):19.","journal-title":"Sci Eng Ethics"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-022-01716-0","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,27]],"date-time":"2022-04-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1651017600000}}],"container-title":["Drugs"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40265-022-01701-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40265-022-01701-7\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40265-022-01701-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,22]],"date-time":"2022-10-22T19:15:46Z","timestamp":1666466146000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s40265-022-01701-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]},"references-count":131,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["1701"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40265-022-01701-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["0012-6667","1179-1950"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0012-6667","type":"print"},{"value":"1179-1950","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]},"assertion":[{"value":"7 March 2022","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"2 April 2022","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"27 April 2022","order":3,"name":"change_date","label":"Change Date","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Correction","order":4,"name":"change_type","label":"Change Type","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"A Correction to this paper has been published:","order":5,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40265-022-01716-0","URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40265-022-01716-0","order":6,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"No financial assistance was used to assist in the preparation of the manuscript.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Funding"}},{"value":"Fabrizio Schifano, Valeria Catalani, Safia Sharif, Flavia Napoletano, John Martin Corkery, Davide Arillotta, Suzanne Fergus, Alessandro Vento, and Amira Guirguis declare no conflicts of interest.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflicts of interest"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":6,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":7,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Availability of data and material"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":8,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Code availability"}},{"value":"FS conceived the idea for the manuscript and coordinated the project. VC, SS and FN carried out data collection and systematization. VC and FS analyzed the data. FS drafted the manuscript, and JMC, DA, SF, AV and AG critically reviewed the manuscript.","order":9,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Author contributions"}}]}}