{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T04:40:47Z","timestamp":1792471247757,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]],"date-time":"2024-12-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734480000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]],"date-time":"2024-12-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sports Med"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-024-02160-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]],"date-time":"2024-12-17T22:16:19Z","timestamp":1734473779000},"page":"1505-1514","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Running on Fumes: An Analysis of Fine Particulate Matter\u2019s Impact on Finish Times in Nine Major US Marathons, 2003\u20132019"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"55","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-6147-0683","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elvira S.","family":"Fleury","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gray S.","family":"Bittker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Allan C.","family":"Just","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph M.","family":"Braun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"2160_CR1","first-page":"E69","volume":"8","author":"Y-F Xing","year":"2016","unstructured":"Xing Y-F, Xu Y-H, Shi M-H, Lian Y-X. The impact of PM2.5 on the human respiratory system. J Thorac Dis. 2016;8(1):E69.","journal-title":"J Thorac Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"2160_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3594","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-23853-y","volume":"12","author":"EE McDuffie","year":"2021","unstructured":"McDuffie EE, Martin RV, Spadaro JV, Burnett R, Smith SJ, O\u2019Rourke P, et al. Source sector and fuel contributions to ambient PM2.5 and attributable mortality across multiple spatial scales. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):3594.","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"2160_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2016.01.030","volume":"128","author":"S Feng","year":"2016","unstructured":"Feng S, Gao D, Liao F, Zhou F, Wang X. The health effects of ambient PM2.5 and potential mechanisms. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2016;128:67\u201374.","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol Environ Saf"},{"issue":"11","key":"2160_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.001081063","volume":"108","author":"KE Pinkerton","year":"2000","unstructured":"Pinkerton KE, Green F, Saiki C, Vallyathan V, Plopper CG, Gopal V, et al. Distribution of particulate matter and tissue remodeling in the human lung. Environ Health Perspect. 2000;108(11):1063\u20139.","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"issue":"4","key":"2160_CR5","first-page":"423","volume":"37","author":"D Xu","year":"2008","unstructured":"Xu D, Huang N, Wang Q, Liu H. Study of ambient PM2.5 on the influence of the inflammation injury and the immune function of subchronic exposure rats. Wei sheng yan jiu J Hyg Res. 2008;37(4):423\u20138.","journal-title":"Wei sheng yan jiu J Hyg Res"},{"issue":"4","key":"2160_CR6","first-page":"554","volume":"42","author":"G Wang","year":"2013","unstructured":"Wang G, Zhen L, L\u00fc P, Jiang R, Song W. Effects of ozone and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) on rat cardiac autonomic nervous system and systemic inflammation. Wei sheng yan jiu J Hyg Res. 2013;42(4):554\u201360.","journal-title":"Wei sheng yan jiu J Hyg Res"},{"key":"2160_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-013-0108-z","volume":"44","author":"LV Giles","year":"2014","unstructured":"Giles LV, Koehle MS. The health effects of exercising in air pollution. Sports Med. 2014;44:223\u201349.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"2160_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00581959","volume":"378","author":"F Saibene","year":"1978","unstructured":"Saibene F, Mognoni P, Lafortuna CL, Mostardi R. Oronasal breathing during exercise. Pflugers Arch. 1978;378:65\u20139.","journal-title":"Pflugers Arch"},{"issue":"9","key":"2160_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10090530","volume":"10","author":"T Hussein","year":"2019","unstructured":"Hussein T, Saleh SSA, dos Santos VN, Boor BE, Koivisto AJ, L\u00f6ndahl J. Regional inhaled deposited dose of urban aerosols in an eastern Mediterranean city. Atmosphere. 2019;10(9):530.","journal-title":"Atmosphere"},{"issue":"11","key":"2160_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.3109\/08958378.2011.604106","volume":"23","author":"PT Cutrufello","year":"2011","unstructured":"Cutrufello PT, Rundell KW, Smoliga JM, Stylianides GA. Inhaled whole exhaust and its effect on exercise performance and vascular function. Inhal Toxicol. 2011;23(11):658\u201367.","journal-title":"Inhal Toxicol"},{"issue":"1","key":"2160_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/08958370701758593","volume":"20","author":"KW Rundell","year":"2008","unstructured":"Rundell KW, Slee JB, Caviston R, Hollenbach AM. Decreased lung function after inhalation of ultrafine and fine particulate matter during exercise is related to decreased total nitrate in exhaled breath condensate. Inhal Toxicol. 2008;20(1):1\u20139.","journal-title":"Inhal Toxicol"},{"issue":"1","key":"2160_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1832","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-28802-x","volume":"13","author":"M Cusick","year":"2023","unstructured":"Cusick M, Rowland ST, DeFelice N. Impact of air pollution on running performance. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1):1832.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"7","key":"2160_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1177\/1527002518822701","volume":"20","author":"M Guo","year":"2019","unstructured":"Guo M, Fu S. Running with a mask? The effect of air pollution on marathon runners\u2019 performance. J Sports Econ. 2019;20(7):903\u201328.","journal-title":"J Sports Econ"},{"issue":"3","key":"2160_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e3181b84a85","volume":"42","author":"LC Marr","year":"2010","unstructured":"Marr LC, Ely MR. Effect of air pollution on marathon running performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42(3):585\u201391.","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"2160_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.156825","volume":"842","author":"JR Hodgson","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hodgson JR, Chapman L, Pope FD. Amateur runners more influenced than elite runners by temperature and air pollution during the UK\u2019s Great North Run half marathon. Sci Total Environ. 2022;842: 156825.","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"issue":"1","key":"2160_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wem.2019.10.005","volume":"31","author":"DR Wagner","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wagner DR, Brandley DC. Exercise in thermal inversions: PM2.5 air pollution effects on pulmonary function and aerobic performance. Wilderness Environ Med. 2020;31(1):16\u201322.","journal-title":"Wilderness Environ Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"2160_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0037407","volume":"7","author":"N El Helou","year":"2012","unstructured":"El Helou N, Tafflet M, Berthelot G, Tolaini J, Marc A, Guillaume M, et al. Impact of environmental parameters on marathon running performance. PLoS\u00a0One. 2012;7(5): e37407.","journal-title":"PLoS\u00a0One"},{"issue":"1","key":"2160_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2194493","DOI":"10.1080\/27658511.2023.2194493","volume":"9","author":"D Mc Evoy","year":"2023","unstructured":"Mc Evoy D, Buggy CJ. Respiratory effects of running in urban areas with high and low ambient air pollution: a scoping review. Sustain Environ. 2023;9(1):2194493.","journal-title":"Sustain Environ"},{"key":"2160_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Just A, Arfer K, Rush J, Lyapustin A, Kloog I. XIS-PM2.5: a daily spatiotemporal machine-learning model for PM2.5 in the contiguous United States. Authorea Preprints. 2022.","DOI":"10.1002\/essoar.10512861.1"},{"key":"2160_CR20","unstructured":"rundisney.com. https:\/\/www.rundisney.com\/events\/disneyworld\/disneyworld-marathon-weekend\/events\/marathon\/. Accessed Sept 2024."},{"key":"2160_CR21","unstructured":"MarathonGuide.com [updated 03\/06\/2024. Marathons, Running Directory and Community]. https:\/\/www.marathonguide.com\/. Accessed Mar 2024."},{"key":"2160_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2014.11.028","volume":"197","author":"Y Cheng","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cheng Y, He K, Du Z, Zheng M, Duan F, Ma Y. Humidity plays an important role in the PM2.5 pollution in Beijing. Environ Pollut. 2015;197:68\u201375.","journal-title":"Environ Pollut"},{"key":"2160_CR23","first-page":"1","volume":"2013","author":"R Jayamurugan","year":"2013","unstructured":"Jayamurugan R, Kumaravel B, Palanivelraja S, Chockalingam M. Influence of temperature, relative humidity and seasonal variability on ambient air quality in a coastal urban area. Int J Atmos Sci. 2013;2013:1\u20137.","journal-title":"Int J Atmos Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"2160_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.4209\/aaqr.2016.07.0296","volume":"17","author":"L Zhang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Zhang L, Cheng Y, Zhang Y, He Y, Gu Z, Yu C. Impact of air humidity fluctuation on the rise of PM mass concentration based on the high-resolution monitoring data. Aerosol Air Qual Res. 2017;17(2):543\u201352.","journal-title":"Aerosol Air Qual Res"},{"key":"2160_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-200131100-00004","volume":"31","author":"SN Cheuvront","year":"2001","unstructured":"Cheuvront SN, Haymes EM. Thermoregulation and marathon running: biological and environmental influences. Sports Med. 2001;31:743\u201362.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"2160_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01051083","volume":"33","author":"LM Trapasso","year":"1989","unstructured":"Trapasso LM, Cooper JD. Record performances at the Boston Marathon: biometeorological factors. Int J Biometeorol. 1989;33:233\u20137.","journal-title":"Int J Biometeorol"},{"key":"2160_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JD016051","author":"Y Xia","year":"2012","unstructured":"Xia Y, Mitchell K, Ek M, Cosgrove B, Sheffield J, Luo L, et al. Continental-scale water and energy flux analysis and validation for North American Land Data Assimilation System project phase 2 (NLDAS-2): 2. Validation of model-simulated streamflow. J Geophys Res Atmos. 2012. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2011JD016051.","journal-title":"J Geophys Res Atmos"},{"key":"2160_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JD016048","author":"Y Xia","year":"2012","unstructured":"Xia Y, Mitchell K, Ek M, Sheffield J, Cosgrove B, Wood E, et al. Continental-scale water and energy flux analysis and validation for the North American Land Data Assimilation System project phase 2 (NLDAS-2): 1. Intercomparison and application of model products. J Geophys Res Atmos. 2012. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2011JD016048.","journal-title":"J Geophys Res Atmos."},{"key":"2160_CR29","unstructured":"LeBauer D. Convert specific humidity to relative humidity PEcAn.data.atomosphere 1.6.02014. https:\/\/ashiklom.github.io\/pecan-package-docs\/modules\/data.atmosphere\/docs\/reference\/qair2rh.html. Accessed Mar 2024."},{"issue":"10","key":"2160_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1206273","volume":"121","author":"GB Anderson","year":"2013","unstructured":"Anderson GB, Bell ML, Peng RD. Methods to calculate the heat index as an exposure metric in environmental health research. Environ Health Perspect. 2013;121(10):1111\u20139.","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"2160_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bates D, M\u00e4chler M, Bolker B, Walker S. Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. arXiv preprint arXiv:1406.5823. 2014.","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01"},{"key":"2160_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511754098","volume-title":"Quantile regression","author":"R Koenker","year":"2005","unstructured":"Koenker R. Quantile regression. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2005."},{"key":"2160_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v057.i13","volume":"57","author":"M Geraci","year":"2014","unstructured":"Geraci M. Linear quantile mixed models: the lqmm package for Laplace quantile regression. J Stat Softw. 2014;57:1\u201329.","journal-title":"J Stat Softw"},{"key":"2160_CR34","unstructured":"Rushgeo K. Parallelize lqmm Github 2024. https:\/\/github.com\/justlab\/lqmm\/tree\/parallel. Accessed Mar 2024."},{"key":"2160_CR35","unstructured":"Team RC. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. 4.3.2 ed: R Foundation for Statistical Computing 2023."},{"key":"2160_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.106011","volume":"144","author":"C-H Lim","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lim C-H, Ryu J, Choi Y, Jeon SW, Lee W-K. Understanding global PM2.5 concentrations and their drivers in recent decades (1998\u20132016). Environ Int. 2020;144: 106011.","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"2160_CR37","unstructured":"Reconsideration of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter. In: Agency EP, editor. 40 CFR Parts 50, 53, and 58 2024."},{"issue":"1","key":"2160_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8237","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-44561-0","volume":"9","author":"M Shehab","year":"2019","unstructured":"Shehab M, Pope F. Effects of short-term exposure to particulate matter air pollution on cognitive performance. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):8237.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"7","key":"2160_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0132943","volume":"10","author":"G Cona","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cona G, Cavazzana A, Paoli A, Marcolin G, Grainer A, Bisiacchi PS. It\u2019sa matter of mind! Cognitive functioning predicts the athletic performance in ultra-marathon runners. PLoS\u00a0One. 2015;10(7): e0132943.","journal-title":"PLoS\u00a0One"},{"key":"2160_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.171997","volume":"927","author":"C Ribalta","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ribalta C, Garrandes F, Bermon S, Adami PE, Ibarrola-Ulzurrun E, Rivas I, et al. Dynamic and stationary monitoring of air pollutant exposures and dose during marathons. Sci Total Environ. 2024;927: 171997.","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"key":"2160_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.11562","volume":"9","author":"JA Zoladz","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zoladz JA, Nieckarz Z. Marathon race performance increases the amount of particulate matter deposited in the respiratory system of runners: an incentive for \u201cclean air marathon runs.\u201d PeerJ. 2021;9: e11562.","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"issue":"9","key":"2160_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2020-0352","volume":"16","author":"N Traiperm","year":"2021","unstructured":"Traiperm N, Chaunchaiyakul R, Burtscher M, Gatterer H. Cardiac biomarkers following Marathon running: is running time a factor for biomarker change? Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2021;16(9):1253\u201360.","journal-title":"Int J Sports Physiol Perform"},{"issue":"2","key":"2160_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1080\/08958370601051727","volume":"19","author":"KW Rundell","year":"2007","unstructured":"Rundell KW, Hoffman JR, Caviston R, Bulbulian R, Hollenbach AM. Inhalation of ultrafine and fine particulate matter disrupts systemic vascular function. Inhal Toxicol. 2007;19(2):133\u201340.","journal-title":"Inhal Toxicol"},{"issue":"4","key":"2160_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"046018","DOI":"10.1088\/1752-7163\/10\/4\/046018","volume":"10","author":"MC de S\u00e1","year":"2016","unstructured":"de S\u00e1 MC, Nakagawa NK, de Andr\u00e9 CDS, Carvalho-Oliveira R, de Santana Carvalho T, Nicola ML, et al. Aerobic exercise in polluted urban environments: effects on airway defense mechanisms in young healthy amateur runners. J Breath Res. 2016;10(4):046018.","journal-title":"J Breath Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"2160_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-018-0437-3","volume":"17","author":"X Chen","year":"2018","unstructured":"Chen X, Chen W, Wang Y, Han Y, Zhu T. Responses of healthy young males to fine-particle exposure are modified by exercise habits: a panel study. Environ Health. 2018;17(1):1\u201312.","journal-title":"Environ Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"2160_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.11062","volume":"117","author":"JJ de Hartog","year":"2009","unstructured":"de Hartog JJ, Lanki T, Timonen KL, Hoek G, Janssen NA, Ibald-Mulli A, et al. Associations between PM2.5 and heart rate variability are modified by particle composition and beta-blocker use in patients with coronary heart disease. Environ Health Perspect. 2009;117(1):105\u201311.","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"2160_CR47","first-page":"1","volume":"5","author":"DA Edwards","year":"2021","unstructured":"Edwards DA, Norden B, Karnath L, Yaghi O, Roy CJ, Johanson D, et al. Hydration for clean air today. World Sci. 2021;5:1\u20134.","journal-title":"World Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"2160_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1038\/s41370-020-0213-7","volume":"30","author":"NA Rosenquist","year":"2020","unstructured":"Rosenquist NA, Metcalf WJ, Ryu SY, Rutledge A, Coppes MJ, Grzymski JJ, et al. Acute associations between PM2.5 and ozone concentrations and asthma exacerbations among patients with and without allergic comorbidities. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2020;30(5):795\u2013804.","journal-title":"J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol"},{"key":"2160_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.116761","volume":"277","author":"M-CM Tsou","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tsou M-CM, Lung S-CC, Shen Y-S, Liu C-H, Hsieh Y-H, Chen N, et al. A community-based study on associations between PM25 and PM1 exposure and heart rate variability using wearable low-cost sensing devices. Environ Pollut. 2021;277:116761.","journal-title":"Environ Pollut"},{"key":"2160_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.117572","volume":"287","author":"X Xing","year":"2021","unstructured":"Xing X, Liu F, Yang X, Liu Q, Wang X, Lin Z, et al. Declines in heart rate variability associated with short-term PM25 exposure were modified by blood pressure control and treatment: a multi-city panel study in China. Environ Pollut. 2021;287:117572.","journal-title":"Environ Pollut"}],"container-title":["Sports Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40279-024-02160-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40279-024-02160-8\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40279-024-02160-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,10]],"date-time":"2025-06-10T05:30:00Z","timestamp":1749533400000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s40279-024-02160-8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["2160"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40279-024-02160-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["0112-1642","1179-2035"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0112-1642","type":"print"},{"value":"1179-2035","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]]},"assertion":[{"value":"26 November 2024","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 December 2024","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"E.S.F., A.C.J., and J.M.B. conceptualized and designed the study; G.S.B. and A.C.J. acquired the data; E.S.F. performed the statistical analyses, and E.S.F., A.C.J., and J.M.B. interpreted the statistical models; E.S.F. wrote the first draft of the manuscript, and all authors critically revised subsequent versions until all authors approved the manuscript submitted for publication.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Author contribution"}},{"value":"Joseph Braun has served as an expert witness for plaintiffs in litigation related to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS)-contaminated drinking water. None of the other authors had any potential conflicts of interest with the content of this study.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}},{"value":"None.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Funding"}},{"value":"Anonymized data and code will be made openly and publicly available upon publication of the article.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Data availability"}},{"value":"The Brown University Human Research Protection Program (HRPP) reviewed and granted this protocol exempt under 45 CFR \u00a7 46 as it uses publicly available information. The HRPP accepted the requested waiver of informed consent for the collection of secondary data [45 CFR \u00a7 46.116].","order":6,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical approval"}}]}}