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A scoring system was used to award points, with Olympic gold medals and WRs ranked joint highest. Fewer points were awarded for Olympic silver and bronze medals and for medals in World Championships (outdoor, indoor, and cross-country). Bonus points were awarded for WR longevity and the setting of WRs during Olympic finals. Athletes were also ranked by event and within historical eras.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>As of March 2026, Usain Bolt (Jamaica) was ranked as the male GOAT, and the highest-scoring woman was Faith Kipyegon (Kenya). Both athletes notably won \u201cdoubles\u201d during their careers (over 100\/200\u00a0m and 1500\u00a0m\/5000\u00a0m, respectively) and set WRs over both distances. Marathon, steeplechase, and hurdle specialists usually competed in one event only. In an earlier era, Paavo Nurmi (Finland) had the highest combined Olympic Games\/WR score across a range of distances.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Athletes who successfully competed over physiologically and tactically similar events (\u201cdoubles\u201d), such as Bolt and Kipyegon, had a greater opportunity to become the GOAT. An increase in global competition since 1972 meant greater opportunities for winning medals, especially for women. 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They were not involved in the selection of peer reviewers for the manuscript nor any of the subsequent editorial decisions.\u00a0The remaining\u00a0authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Conflict of Interest","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"All data are provided within the main manuscript and from a publicly available dataset (\n                      \n                      ).","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Availability of Data and Material","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The study was approved by an institutional review board (application no. 144192) on the basis that all data were openly available.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics Approval","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent to Participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":6,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for Publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":7,"name":"Ethics","label":"Code Availability","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Carl Foster conceptualized the study. Brian Hanley collated the data from online sources and conducted the primary analysis. Carl Foster and Brian Hanley co-wrote the first draft. Florentina Hettinga conducted the survey of coaches, athletes, and scientists. All authors were involved in developing and guiding the analysis methods, as well as interpreting the results, and all authors were responsible for the preparation of the manuscript as well as reviewing it before submission for publication. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.","order":8,"name":"Ethics","label":"Author Contributions","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}]}}