{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T19:23:47Z","timestamp":1792783427190,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]],"date-time":"2026-10-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792281600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]],"date-time":"2026-10-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792281600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Curtin University","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02n415q13","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sports Med"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Mental fatigue is widely invoked to explain performance decrements across high-stakes domains. The prevailing definition calls mental fatigue \u201ca psychobiological state caused by prolonged demanding cognitive activity and characterised by subjective feelings of tiredness.\u201d This definition has two flaws. It confuses the label with the constitutive properties of the concept, and it treats the dissociations among self-report, performance and physiology as mixed measurement effects, when those dissociations are diagnostically informative. We argue this conflation reflects a definitional problem disguised as a measurement issue. Drawing on perceptual control theory, we reconceptualise mental fatigue as a transient state of an effort-regulation control system. In this state, the system\u2019s controlled perception\u2014functional viability\u2014persistently remains below its reference during sustained cognitive control. This state arises from, and is maintained by, resource-goal conflict\u2014conflict between resource-management systems (signalling conservation needs) and goal-management systems (signalling task importance). Our constitutive definition does four things. It clarifies the entity (a specific regulator), specifies the property (persistent error reflecting unresolved resource-goal conflict) and articulates the intrinsic attribute (viability below reference). From these clarifications, it derives observable indicators along an economisation continuum\u2014efficiency adjustments, reduced precision, elevated effort, disengagement\u2014without collapsing the concept into any single indicator. Neighbouring constructs are distinguished by their conflict structure and economisation profile. The framework is offered as a falsifiable architecture that organises measurement, generates testable predictions, and accelerates the development of credible psychobiological markers and countermeasures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-026-02544-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]],"date-time":"2026-10-18T18:25:47Z","timestamp":1792347947000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Reconceptualising Mental Fatigue via Perceptual Control: From Concept Label to Constitutive Definition"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5448-3990","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel F.","family":"Gucciardi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hugh","family":"Riddell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen J.","family":"Tidman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kagan J.","family":"Ducker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Warren","family":"Mansell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"2544_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.36922\/ijps.4276","volume":"12","author":"S Gon\u00e7alves","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gon\u00e7alves S, Matos RS. Effectiveness of cognitive interventions in mitigating mental fatigue among healthcare professionals in hospital settings: a systematic review. Int J Popul Stud. 2024;12:1\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.36922\/ijps.4276.","journal-title":"Int J Popul Stud"},{"key":"2544_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-021-01429-6","volume":"51","author":"J Habay","year":"2021","unstructured":"Habay J, Van Cutsem J, Verschueren J, De Bock S, Proost M, De Wachter J, et al. Mental fatigue and sport-specific psychomotor performance: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2021;51:1527\u201348. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40279-021-01429-6.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"2544_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2025.105109","volume":"258","author":"X Pan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Pan X, Soh KG, Jaafar WMW, Soh KL, Li M, Liu H, et al. Effects of mental fatigue on Olympic ball sports performance: a systematic review. Acta Psychol. 2025;258:105109. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.actpsy.2025.105109.","journal-title":"Acta Psychol"},{"key":"2544_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1136\/military-2025-002963","volume":"171","author":"A Rabat","year":"2025","unstructured":"Rabat A, Van Cutsem J, Marcora SM, Lambert A, Markwald R, Kubala AG, et al. Fatigue and management of warfighter mental endurance. BMJ Mil Health. 2025;171:447\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/military-2025-002963.","journal-title":"BMJ Mil Health"},{"key":"2544_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1525","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-018-0908-2","volume":"48","author":"MR Smith","year":"2018","unstructured":"Smith MR, Thompson C, Marcora SM, Skorski S, Meyer T, Coutts AJ. Mental fatigue and soccer: current knowledge and future directions. Sports Med. 2018;48:1525\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40279-018-0908-2.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"2544_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-018-1016-z","volume":"49","author":"CJ Thompson","year":"2019","unstructured":"Thompson CJ, Fransen J, Skorski S, Smith MR, Meyer T, Barrett S, et al. Mental fatigue in football: is it time to shift the goalposts? An evaluation of the current methodology. Sports Med. 2019;49:177\u201383. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40279-018-1016-z.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"2544_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-016-0672-0","volume":"47","author":"J Van Cutsem","year":"2017","unstructured":"Van Cutsem J, Marcora S, De Pauw K, Bailey S, Meeusen R, Roelands B. The effects of mental fatigue on physical performance: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2017;47:1569\u201388. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40279-016-0672-0.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"2544_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/app16010234","volume":"16","author":"R Ayuso-Moreno","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ayuso-Moreno R, Rubio-Morales A, Dur\u00e1n-Rufaco A, Garc\u00eda-Calvo T, Gonz\u00e1lez-Ponce I. EEG-based assessment of mental fatigue in students: a systematic review of measurement methods and data processing protocols. Appl Sci. 2025;16:234. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app16010234.","journal-title":"Appl Sci"},{"key":"2544_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1186\/s40798-025-00891-0","volume":"11","author":"C Bian","year":"2025","unstructured":"Bian C, Russell S, Mali A, Lathouwers E, De Pauw K, Habay J, et al. Methodological considerations and effectiveness for ecologically valid mental fatigue inducement in sports: a systematic review. Sports Med Open. 2025;11:82. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40798-025-00891-0.","journal-title":"Sports Med Open"},{"key":"2544_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-025-02620-7","volume":"57","author":"SPJ Goodman","year":"2025","unstructured":"Goodman SPJ, Collins B, Shorter K, Moreland AT, Papic C, Hamlin AS, et al. Approaches to inducing mental fatigue: a systematic review and meta-analysis of (neuro)physiologic indices. Behav Res. 2025;57:102. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13428-025-02620-7.","journal-title":"Behav Res"},{"key":"2544_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-025-07222-5","volume":"244","author":"MM Roose","year":"2026","unstructured":"Roose MM, Schampheleer E, Habay J, De Pauw K, Meeusen R, Van Schuerbeek P, et al. Mental fatigue and brain activation using prolonged task-based fMRI: a systematic review on time-on-task and sequential task paradigms. Exp Brain Res. 2026;244:24. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00221-025-07222-5.","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"key":"2544_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2387","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-025-02286-3","volume":"55","author":"E Schampheleer","year":"2025","unstructured":"Schampheleer E, Habay J, Proost M, Arauz YLA, Russell S, Roose M, et al. Current practices for mental fatigue quantification and induction in movement science: introducing the SPeCIFY guidelines. Sports Med. 2025;55:2387\u2013413. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40279-025-02286-3.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"2544_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.91324.2008","volume":"106","author":"SM Marcora","year":"2009","unstructured":"Marcora SM, Staiano W, Manning V. Mental fatigue impairs physical performance in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2009;106:857\u201364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1152\/japplphysiol.91324.2008.","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"2544_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2293","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-023-01926-w","volume":"53","author":"D Holgado","year":"2023","unstructured":"Holgado D, Mesquida C, Rom\u00e1n-Caballero R. Assessing the evidential value of mental fatigue and exercise research. Sports Med. 2023;53:2293\u2013307. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40279-023-01926-w.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"2544_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-026-02400-z","volume":"56","author":"D Holgado","year":"2026","unstructured":"Holgado D, Sanabria D, Place N. Do all paths lead to mental fatigue or is it merely a self-fulfilling prophecy? Sports Med. 2026;56:1063\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40279-026-02400-z.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"2544_CR16","volume-title":"Behavior: the control of perception","author":"WT Powers","year":"1973","unstructured":"Powers WT. Behavior: the control of perception. Chicago (IL): Aldine; 1973."},{"key":"2544_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2021.10.013","volume":"25","author":"FM Impellizzeri","year":"2022","unstructured":"Impellizzeri FM, Jeffries AC, Weisman A, Coutts AJ, McCall A, McLaren SJ, et al. The \u2018training load\u2019 construct: why it is appropriate and scientific. J Sci Med Sport. 2022;25:445\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jsams.2021.10.013.","journal-title":"J Sci Med Sport"},{"key":"2544_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2021.658890","volume":"15","author":"C Englert","year":"2021","unstructured":"Englert C, Bertrams A. Again, no evidence for or against the existence of ego depletion: opinion on \u201cA multi-site preregistered paradigmatic test of the ego depletion effect.\u201d Front Hum Neurosci. 2021;15:658890. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2021.658890.","journal-title":"Front Hum Neurosci"},{"key":"2544_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1094428115624965","author":"PM Podsakoff","year":"2016","unstructured":"Podsakoff PM, MacKenzie SB, Podsakoff NP. Recommendations for creating better concept definitions in the organizational, behavioral, and social sciences. Organ Res Methods. 2016. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1094428115624965.","journal-title":"Organ Res Methods"},{"key":"2544_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2025.02.005","volume":"29","author":"M Pessiglione","year":"2025","unstructured":"Pessiglione M, Blain B, Wiehler A, Naik S. Origins and consequences of cognitive fatigue. Trends Cogn Sci. 2025;29:730\u201349. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tics.2025.02.005.","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"key":"2544_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1055\/a-2514-1195","volume":"46","author":"L Oliver","year":"2025","unstructured":"Oliver L, Goodman S, Sullivan J, Peake J, Kelly V. Challenges and perspectives with understanding the concept of mental fatigue. Int J Sports Med. 2025;46:316\u201323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1055\/a-2514-1195.","journal-title":"Int J Sports Med"},{"key":"2544_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2008.07.001","volume":"59","author":"MAS Boksem","year":"2008","unstructured":"Boksem MAS, Tops M. Mental fatigue: costs and benefits. Brain Res Rev. 2008;59:125\u201339. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2008.07.001.","journal-title":"Brain Res Rev"},{"issue":"3","key":"2544_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1080\/17437199.2026.2619026","volume":"20","author":"DF Gucciardi","year":"2026","unstructured":"Gucciardi DF, Crane MF, Riddell H, Mansell W. Toward an integrative perspective of personalised stress regulation: insights from perceptual control theory. Health Psychol Rev. 2026;20(3):530\u201354. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/17437199.2026.2619026.","journal-title":"Health Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2544_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2025.11.017","volume":"29","author":"DF Gucciardi","year":"2026","unstructured":"Gucciardi DF, Ducker KJ, Brade CJ, Riddell H, Girard O, Mansell W. One system, two paths: unifying autonomic and behavioural thermoregulation via perceptual control. J Sci Med Sport. 2026;29:828\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jsams.2025.11.017.","journal-title":"J Sci Med Sport"},{"key":"2544_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-91165-8.00008-1","volume-title":"The interdisciplinary handbook of perceptual control theory","author":"E de Hullu","year":"2023","unstructured":"de Hullu E. Exploring the perceptual control hierarchy. In: Mansell W, de Hullu E, Huddy V, Scholte T, editors. The interdisciplinary handbook of perceptual control theory. Academic Press; 2023. p. 3\u201328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/B978-0-323-91165-8.00008-1."},{"key":"2544_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-375097-6.10003-4","volume-title":"Handbook of neuroendocrinology","author":"G Fink","year":"2012","unstructured":"Fink G. Neuroendocrine feedback control systems: an introduction. In: Fink G, Pfaff DW, Levine JE, editors. Handbook of neuroendocrinology. San Diego (CA): Academic Press; 2012. p. 55\u201372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/B978-0-12-375097-6.10003-4."},{"key":"2544_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/apha.70063","volume":"241","author":"D Mitchell","year":"2025","unstructured":"Mitchell D, Maloney SK, Snelling EP, Hetem RS, Fuller A. Revisiting concepts of thermal physiology: understanding feedback and feedforward control, and local temperature regulation. Acta Physiol. 2025;241:e70063. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/apha.70063.","journal-title":"Acta Physiol"},{"key":"2544_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17630","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3532846","volume":"13","author":"A Procopio","year":"2025","unstructured":"Procopio A, Tedesco A, Regio FL, Cesarelli G, Donisi L, Ricciardi C, et al. A general framework for closed loop negative feedback multivariable physiological control systems: existence, uniqueness, and stability of homeostatic equilibrium points. IEEE Access. 2025;13:17630\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3532846.","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"2544_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2019","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-024-02055-8","volume":"54","author":"I Halperin","year":"2024","unstructured":"Halperin I, Vigotsky AD. An integrated perspective of effort and perception of effort. Sports Med. 2024;54:2019\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40279-024-02055-8.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"2544_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X12003196","volume":"36","author":"R Kurzban","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kurzban R, Duckworth A, Kable JW, Myers J. An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance. Behav Brain Sci. 2013;36:661\u201379. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0140525X12003196.","journal-title":"Behav Brain Sci"},{"key":"2544_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-072116-031526","volume":"40","author":"A Shenhav","year":"2017","unstructured":"Shenhav A, Musslick S, Lieder F, Kool W, Griffiths TL, Cohen JD, et al. Toward a rational and mechanistic account of mental effort. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2017;40:99\u2013124. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-neuro-072116-031526.","journal-title":"Annu Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"2544_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Cutsem, Jeroen, Bart Roelands, Kevin De Pauw, Romain Meeusen, and Samuele Marcora. Subjective thermal strain impairs endurance performance in a temperate environment. Physiology & behavior 2022:202:36-44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2019.01.011"},{"key":"2544_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3564","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2022.07.010","volume":"32","author":"A Wiehler","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wiehler A, Branzoli F, Adanyeguh I, Mochel F, Pessiglione M. A neuro-metabolic account of why daylong cognitive work alters the control of economic decisions. Curr Biol. 2022;32:3564-75.e5. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cub.2022.07.010.","journal-title":"Curr Biol"},{"key":"2544_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-6997(24)01396-6","volume":"51","author":"BB Fredholm","year":"1999","unstructured":"Fredholm BB, B\u00e4ttig K, Holm\u00e9n J, Nehlig A, Zvartau EE. Actions of caffeine in the brain with special reference to factors that contribute to its widespread use. Pharmacol Rev. 1999;51:83\u2013133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0031-6997(24)01396-6.","journal-title":"Pharmacol Rev"},{"key":"2544_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-200131110-00002","volume":"31","author":"TE Graham","year":"2001","unstructured":"Graham TE. Caffeine and exercise: metabolism, endurance and performance. Sports Med. 2001;31:785\u2013807. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2165\/00007256-200131110-00002.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"2544_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0838.2005.00445.x","volume":"15","author":"M Doherty","year":"2005","unstructured":"Doherty M, Smith PM. Effects of caffeine ingestion on rating of perceived exertion during and after exercise: a meta-analysis. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2005;15:69\u201378. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1600-0838.2005.00445.x.","journal-title":"Scand J Med Sci Sports"},{"key":"2544_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2293","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-016-3483-y","volume":"116","author":"R Azevedo","year":"2016","unstructured":"Azevedo R, Silva-Cavalcante MD, Gualano B, Lima-Silva AE, Bertuzzi R. Effects of caffeine ingestion on endurance performance in mentally fatigued individuals. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2016;116:2293\u2013303. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00421-016-3483-y.","journal-title":"Eur J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"2544_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-017-4809-0","volume":"235","author":"J Van Cutsem","year":"2018","unstructured":"Van Cutsem J, De Pauw K, Marcora S, Meeusen R, Roelands B. A caffeine-maltodextrin mouth rinse counters mental fatigue. Psychopharmacology. 2018;235:947\u201358. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00213-017-4809-0.","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"2544_CR39","volume-title":"Behavior: the control of perception, revised and expanded","author":"WT Powers","year":"2005","unstructured":"Powers WT. Behavior: the control of perception, revised and expanded. New Canaan (CT): Benchmark Publication; 2005."},{"key":"2544_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1677","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000001263","volume":"49","author":"J Van Cutsem","year":"2017","unstructured":"Van Cutsem J, De Pauw K, Buyse L, Marcora S, Meeusen R, Roelands B. Effects of mental fatigue on endurance performance in the heat. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2017;49:1677\u201387. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1249\/MSS.0000000000001263.","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"2544_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1518\/001872008X312152","volume":"50","author":"JS Warm","year":"2008","unstructured":"Warm JS, Parasuraman R, Matthews G. Vigilance requires hard mental work and is stressful. Hum Factors. 2008;50:433\u201341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1518\/001872008X312152.","journal-title":"Hum Factors"},{"key":"2544_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2015.00176","volume":"9","author":"M Gergelyfi","year":"2015","unstructured":"Gergelyfi M, Jacob B, Olivier E, Z\u00e9non A. Dissociation between mental fatigue and motivational state during prolonged mental activity. Front Behav Neurosci. 2015;9:176. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnbeh.2015.00176.","journal-title":"Front Behav Neurosci"},{"key":"2544_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.14747","volume":"62","author":"Y Yan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Yan Y, Guo Y, Zhou D. Mental fatigue causes significant activation of the prefrontal cortex: a systematic review and meta\u2010analysis of fNIRS studies. Psychophysiology. 2025;62:e14747. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/psyp.14747.","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2544_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.13828","volume":"58","author":"T Bafna","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bafna T, Hansen JP. Mental fatigue measurement using eye metrics: a systematic literature review. Psychophysiology. 2021;58:e13828. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/psyp.13828.","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2544_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1037\/1082-989X.2.4.436","volume":"2","author":"RS Marken","year":"1997","unstructured":"Marken RS. The dancer and the dance: methods in the study of living control systems. Psychol Methods. 1997;2:436\u201346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/1082-989X.2.4.436.","journal-title":"Psychol Methods"},{"key":"2544_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108752138","volume-title":"The study of living control systems: a guide to doing research on purpose","author":"RS Marken","year":"2021","unstructured":"Marken RS. The study of living control systems: a guide to doing research on purpose. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2021."},{"key":"2544_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40798-023-00559-7","volume":"9","author":"J Habay","year":"2023","unstructured":"Habay J, Uylenbroeck R, Van Droogenbroeck R, De Wachter J, Proost M, Tassignon B, et al. Interindividual variability in mental fatigue-related impairments in endurance performance: a systematic review and multiple meta-regression. Sports Med - Open. 2023;9:14. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40798-023-00559-7.","journal-title":"Sports Med - Open"},{"key":"2544_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720819828569","volume":"61","author":"MB Herlambang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Herlambang MB, Taatgen NA, Cnossen F. The role of motivation as a factor in mental fatigue. Hum Factors. 2019;61:1171\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0018720819828569.","journal-title":"Hum Factors"},{"key":"2544_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1603","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000003669","volume":"57","author":"D Holgado","year":"2025","unstructured":"Holgado D, Cailleux A, Ruggeri P, Martarelli C, Bekinschtein TA, Sanabria D, et al. Individualized cognitive effort to failure does not affect subsequent strenuous physical performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2025;57:1603\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1249\/MSS.0000000000003669.","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"2544_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1037\/rev0000365","volume":"129","author":"Z Wang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wang Z, Chang Y, Schmeichel BJ, Garcia AA. The effects of mental fatigue on effort allocation: modeling and estimation. Psychol Rev. 2022;129:1457\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/rev0000365.","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2544_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.2017-0187","volume":"39","author":"DMY Brown","year":"2017","unstructured":"Brown DMY, Bray SR. Effects of mental fatigue on physical endurance performance and muscle activation are attenuated by monetary incentives. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2017;39:385\u201396. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1123\/jsep.2017-0187.","journal-title":"J Sport Exerc Psychol"},{"key":"2544_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.12339","volume":"52","author":"JF Hopstaken","year":"2015","unstructured":"Hopstaken JF, van der Linden D, Bakker AB, Kompier MAJ. A multifaceted investigation of the link between mental fatigue and task disengagement. Psychophysiology. 2015;52:305\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/psyp.12339.","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2544_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Milyavskaya M, Galla BM, Inzlicht M, Duckworth AL. More effort, less fatigue: the role of interest in increasing effort and reducing mental fatigue. Front Psychol. 2021;12:755858. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.755858.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.755858"},{"key":"2544_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1037\/rev0000309","volume":"129","author":"M Agrawal","year":"2022","unstructured":"Agrawal M, Mattar MG, Cohen JD, Daw ND. The temporal dynamics of opportunity costs: a normative account of cognitive fatigue and boredom. Psychol Rev. 2022;129:564\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/rev0000309.","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2544_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2019.00079","volume":"13","author":"N Andr\u00e9","year":"2019","unstructured":"Andr\u00e9 N, Audiffren M, Baumeister RF. An integrative model of effortful control. Front Syst Neurosci. 2019;13:79. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnsys.2019.00079.","journal-title":"Front Syst Neurosci"},{"key":"2544_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stephan, Klaas E, Zina M. Manjaly, Christoph D. Mathys, Lilian AE Weber, Saee Paliwal, Tim Gard, Marc Tittgemeyeret al. Allostatic self-effi cacy: A metacognitive theory of dyshomeostasis-induced fatigue and depression. Frontiers in human neuroscience 2016;10:550","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2016.00550"},{"key":"2544_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pattyn, Nathalie, Jeroen Van Cutsem, Emilie Dessy, and Olivier Mairesse. Bridging exercise science, cognitive psychology, and medical practice: Is \u201ccognitive fatigue\u201d a remake of \u201cthe emperor\u2019s new clothes\u201d?. Frontiers in Psychology 2018;9:1246","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01246"},{"key":"2544_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1037\/mot0000375","volume":"11","author":"T Mangin","year":"2025","unstructured":"Mangin T, Pageaux B. It is time to stop using the terminology \u201cpassive\u201d fatigue. Motiv Sci. 2025;11:125\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/mot0000375.","journal-title":"Motiv Sci"},{"key":"2544_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shenhav, Amitai, Matthew M. Botvinick, and Jonathan D. Cohen. The expected value of control: an integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron 79, no. 2013;2:217-240.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2013.07.007"},{"key":"2544_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2024.101881","volume":"60","author":"V Job","year":"2024","unstructured":"Job V, Mlynski C, Nikitin J. Challenging the law of least effort. Curr Opin Psychol. 2024;60:101881. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.copsyc.2024.101881.","journal-title":"Curr Opin Psychol"},{"key":"2544_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0001529","volume":"81","author":"W Costello","year":"2026","unstructured":"Costello W, Sedlacek AGB, Durkee PK, Crosby CL, Hahnel-Peeters RK, Buss DM. Evolutionary psychology hypotheses are testable and falsifiable. Am Psychol. 2026;81:1\u201324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/amp0001529.","journal-title":"Am Psychol"},{"key":"2544_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1037\/rev0000421","volume":"130","author":"M Villarreal","year":"2023","unstructured":"Villarreal M, Etz A, Lee MD. Evaluating the complexity and falsifiability of psychological models. Psychol Rev. 2023;130:853\u201372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/rev0000421.","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2544_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.739764","volume":"12","author":"S Skau","year":"2021","unstructured":"Skau S, Sundberg K, Kuhn H-G. A proposal for a unifying set of definitions of fatigue. Front Psychol. 2021;12:739764. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.739764.","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"issue":"2","key":"2544_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2021-0028","volume":"17","author":"S Russell","year":"2022","unstructured":"Russell S, Jenkins DG, Halson SL, Juliff LE, Connick MJ, Kelly VG. Mental fatigue over 2 elite netball seasons: a case for mental fatigue to be included in athlete self-report measures. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2022;17(2):160\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1123\/ijspp.2021-0028.","journal-title":"Int J Sports Physiol Perform"},{"key":"2544_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1080\/00223980.2019.1611530","volume":"153","author":"MR Smith","year":"2019","unstructured":"Smith MR, Chai R, Nguyen HT, Marcora SM, Coutts AJ. Comparing the effects of three cognitive tasks on indicators of mental fatigue. J Psychol. 2019;153:759\u201383. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/00223980.2019.1611530.","journal-title":"J Psychol"},{"key":"2544_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-019-09465-5","volume":"31","author":"J Sweller","year":"2019","unstructured":"Sweller J, van Merri\u00ebnboer JJG, Paas F. Cognitive architecture and instructional design: 20 years later. Educ Psychol Rev. 2019;31:261\u201392. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10648-019-09465-5.","journal-title":"Educ Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2544_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109442812096861","DOI":"10.1177\/1094428120968614","volume":"25","author":"M R\u00f6nkk\u00f6","year":"2022","unstructured":"R\u00f6nkk\u00f6 M, Cho E. An updated guideline for assessing discriminant validity. Org Res Methods. 2022;25:109442812096861. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1094428120968614.","journal-title":"Org Res Methods"},{"key":"2544_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003271536","volume-title":"The Routledge international handbook of boredom","author":"W Wolff","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wolff W, Radtke VC, Martarelli CS. Same same but different: what is boredom actually? In: Bieleke M, Wolff W, Martarelli C, editors. The Routledge international handbook of boredom. 1st ed. London: Routledge; 2024. p. 5\u201329. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9781003271536.","edition":"1st ed"},{"key":"2544_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2024.102687","volume":"74","author":"T Pickering","year":"2024","unstructured":"Pickering T, Wright B, MacMahon C. Fatigued or bored? Investigating the effect of different types of mental fatigue on 3 km running performance. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2024;74:102687. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.psychsport.2024.102687.","journal-title":"Psychol Sport Exerc"},{"key":"2544_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/25152459251360642","volume":"8","author":"F Anvari","year":"2025","unstructured":"Anvari F, Alsalti T, Oehler LA, Marion Z, Hussey I, Elson M, et al. A fragmented field: construct and measure proliferation in psychology. Adv Methods Pract Psychol Sci. 2025;8:1\u201321. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/25152459251360642.","journal-title":"Adv Methods Pract Psychol Sci"},{"key":"2544_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.90.1.38","volume":"90","author":"JB Vancouver","year":"2005","unstructured":"Vancouver JB. The depth of history and explanation as benefit and bane for psychological control theories. J Appl Psychol. 2005;90:38\u201352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0021-9010.90.1.38.","journal-title":"J Appl Psychol"},{"key":"2544_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2020.02.030","volume":"112","author":"MG Parker","year":"2020","unstructured":"Parker MG, Willett ABS, Tyson SF, Weightman AP, Mansell W. A systematic evaluation of the evidence for perceptual control theory in tracking studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2020;112:616\u201333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2020.02.030.","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"2544_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2007.146068","volume":"586","author":"SH Scott","year":"2008","unstructured":"Scott SH. Inconvenient truths about neural processing in primary motor cortex. J Physiol. 2008;586:1217\u201324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1113\/jphysiol.2007.146068.","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"key":"2544_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.88.1.87","volume":"88","author":"A Bandura","year":"2003","unstructured":"Bandura A, Locke EA. Negative self-efficacy and goal effects revisited. J Appl Psychol. 2003;88:87\u201399. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0021-9010.88.1.87.","journal-title":"J Appl Psychol"},{"key":"2544_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108677318.009","volume-title":"The handbook of behavior change","author":"W Mansell","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mansell W. Changing behavior using control theory. In: Hamilton K, Cameron LD, Hagger MS, Hankonen N, Lintunen T, editors. The handbook of behavior change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2020. p. 120\u201335. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/9781108677318.009."},{"key":"2544_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2025.101488","volume":"62","author":"W Mansell","year":"2025","unstructured":"Mansell W, Gulrez T, Landman M. The prediction illusion: perceptual control mechanisms that fool the observer. Curr Opin Behav Sci. 2025;62:101488. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cobeha.2025.101488.","journal-title":"Curr Opin Behav Sci"},{"key":"2544_CR77","first-page":"5","volume":"23","author":"TA Carey","year":"2008","unstructured":"Carey TA. Conflict, as the Achilles heel of perceptual control, offers a unifying approach to the formulation of psychological problems. Couns Psychol Rev. 2008;23:5\u201316.","journal-title":"Couns Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2544_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7044.103.6.1348","volume":"103","author":"RS Marken","year":"1989","unstructured":"Marken RS, Powers WT. Random-walk chemotaxis: trial and error as a control process. Behav Neurosci. 1989;103:1348\u201355. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0735-7044.103.6.1348.","journal-title":"Behav Neurosci"}],"container-title":["Sports Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40279-026-02544-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40279-026-02544-y","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40279-026-02544-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T23:06:12Z","timestamp":1792623972000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40279-026-02544-y"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]]},"references-count":78,"alternative-id":["2544"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40279-026-02544-y","relation":{},"ISSN":["0112-1642","1179-2035"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0112-1642","type":"print"},{"value":"1179-2035","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]]},"assertion":[{"value":"14 September 2026","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 October 2026","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Daniel F. Gucciardi, Hugh Riddell, Stephen J. Tidman, Kagan J. Ducker and Warren Mansell have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this article.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Conflict of Interest","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics Approval","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent to Participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for Publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"All relevant information and artefacts are available within the published article or supplementary material.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","label":"Availability of Data and Material","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":6,"name":"Ethics","label":"Code Availability","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"We used Claude.ai (Opus 4.8) exclusively to improve the grammar, syntax and clarity of expression as well as to generate the base svg code for all figures. No text, data, analyses or interpretations were generated by the tool, and all substantive content reflects the authors\u2019 own work.","order":7,"name":"Ethics","label":"Generative AI Statement","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"DFG: conceptualisation, methodology, writing (original draft), writing (review and editing); HR: conceptualisation, methodology, writing (review and editing); SJT: conceptualisation, methodology, writing (review and editing); KJD: conceptualisation, methodology, writing (review and editing); AWM: conceptualisation, methodology, writing (review and editing).","order":8,"name":"Ethics","label":"Author Contributions","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}]}}