{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T21:08:18Z","timestamp":1778879298920,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778803200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778803200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Stanford University Genetic Counseling Program","award":["Stanford University Genetic Counseling Program"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Stanford University Genetic Counseling Program"]}]},{"name":"National Society of Genetic Counseling, ART\/ Infertility Special Interest Group","award":["National Society of Genetic Counseling, ART\/ Infertility Special Interest Group"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["National Society of Genetic Counseling, ART\/ Infertility Special Interest Group"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In the United States there is a clear lack of racial and ethnic diversity among non-identified sperm donors, with an underrepresentation of Black and Hispanic donors, resulting in recipients failing to find donors that share their physical characteristics and racial identity. This lack of diversity exists despite focused recruiting efforts from sperm banks. This study aimed to identify social and cultural factors which may contribute to this phenomenon.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Design<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Individuals assigned male at birth between the ages of 18 and 40 were surveyed. The relationship between each subject\u2019s demographic information and their knowledge of and attitudes toward sperm donation was assessed to compare responses between multiple demographic groups (e.g. race, relationship status, sexuality).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We observed differences between respondents (N=184) of different racial and ethnic backgrounds in attitudes toward several aspects of sperm donation. Most notably, Black\/ African American respondents were more likely than other respondents to cite mistrust in the medical system (p= 0.03, N= 6\/24, 25%) or being uncomfortable with the idea of sperm donation (p= 0.01, N=13\/24, 54.2%) as being a barrier to donation than other respondents. Hispanic\/ Latino\/ Spanish respondents were more likely to cite perceived risk of having to pay child support as a barrier to donation (p= 0.005, N=6, 32%). There were also observed differences in respondents of different sexualities, with gay and bisexual respondents being more willing to donate to same-sex couples (p=0.005).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Recruiting efforts should aim to educate donors on their rights, obligations, as well as potential benefits and drawbacks prior to and after donating to combat false perceptions of this process. Recruitment efforts should be developed in the context of potential mistrust in the medical system, with sensitivity to how this may discourage individuals from donating. In the interest of creating transparency and autonomy, banks may also want to consider newer donation models, providing opportunities for donors to have more open relationships with sperm recipients, which may eliminate some concerns around the environment in which a child will be raised.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-026-02997-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T20:15:08Z","timestamp":1778876108000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Inclusive Fertility: Investigating the Lack of Diversity in Sperm Donation"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-9887-0265","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olivia G.","family":"Anderson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michaela","family":"Taylor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5894-7390","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hetanshi","family":"Naik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lauren","family":"Isley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Katherine","family":"Hornberger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"2997_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2024.05.142","volume":"122","author":"CL Hobbs","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hobbs CL, Gadson AK, Sadikman S, Tsai S, Enemuo F, Raker C, et al. An investigation of racial and ethnic disparities in donor sperm availability in the United States. Fertil Steril. 2024;122(3):474\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2024.05.142.","journal-title":"Fertil Steril"},{"key":"2997_CR2","unstructured":"Marcus AD. Sperm Banks Struggle to Recruit Black Donors and Other Donors of Color. Wall Str J. 2022. https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/articles\/sperm-banks-struggle-to-recruit-black-donors-and-other-donors-of-color-11645887602"},{"key":"2997_CR3","unstructured":"Kaul S, Novak A. Diverse Sperm Shortage Causes Dilemma for Some Black Women: Have a Baby Who Doesn\u2019t Share Your Background or Remain Childless. CBS News 12 Apr. 2023, https:\/\/www.cbsnews.com\/news\/nationwide-shortage-diverse-sperm-donors-cryobank"},{"issue":"1","key":"2997_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1186\/s12958-020-00662-4","volume":"18","author":"DB Seifer","year":"2020","unstructured":"Seifer DB, Simsek B, Wantman E, Kotlyar AM. Status of racial disparities between black and white women undergoing assisted reproductive technology in the US. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2020;18(1):113. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12958-020-00662-4.","journal-title":"Reprod Biol Endocrinol"},{"key":"2997_CR5","unstructured":"Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research. Eligibility Determination for Donors of Human Cells, Tissues, and Cellular and Tissue-Based Products (HCT\/Ps). U.S. Food and Drug Administration, FDA. www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/eligibility-determination-donors-human-cells-tissues-and-cellular-and-tissue-based-products Accessed 17 Mar. 2026."},{"issue":"1","key":"2997_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rbmo.2023.103421","volume":"48","author":"L Gilman","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gilman L, Redhead C, Hudson N, Fox M, Nordqvist P, MacCallum F, et al. Direct-to-consumer genetic testing and the changing landscape of gamete donor conception: key issues for practitioners and stakeholders. Reprod Biomed Online. 2024;48(1):103421. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.rbmo.2023.103421.","journal-title":"Reprod Biomed Online"},{"issue":"2","key":"2997_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1080\/14636770600855184","volume":"25","author":"R Almeling","year":"2006","unstructured":"Almeling R. \u2018Why do you want to be a donor?\u2019: gender and the production of altruism in egg and sperm donation. New Genet Soc. 2006;25(2):143\u201357. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/14636770600855184.","journal-title":"New Genet Soc"},{"issue":"9","key":"2997_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2082","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dew166","volume":"31","author":"T Freeman","year":"2016","unstructured":"Freeman T, Jadva V, Tranfield E, Golombok S. Online sperm donation: a survey of the demographic characteristics, motivations, preferences and experiences of sperm donors on a connection website. Human Reproduction (Oxford, England). 2016;31(9):2082\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/humrep\/dew166.","journal-title":"Human Reproduction (Oxford, England)"},{"issue":"11","key":"2997_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2208","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dez173","volume":"34","author":"S Graham","year":"2019","unstructured":"Graham S, Freeman T, Jadva V. A comparison of the characteristics, motivations, preferences and expectations of men donating sperm online or through a sperm bank. Hum Reprod. 2019;34(11):2208\u201318. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/humrep\/dez173.","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"issue":"4","key":"2997_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1038\/aja.2011.20","volume":"13","author":"P Ping","year":"2011","unstructured":"Ping P, Zhu W-B, Zhang X-Z, Li Y-S, Wang Q-X, Cao X-R, et al. Sperm donation and its application in China: a 7-year multicenter retrospective study. Asian J Androl. 2011;13(4):644\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/aja.2011.20.","journal-title":"Asian J Androl"},{"issue":"3","key":"2997_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1080\/14647273.2019.1602736","volume":"24","author":"S Platts","year":"2021","unstructured":"Platts S, Bracewell-Milnes T, Saso S, Jones B, Parikh R, Thum M-Y. Investigating attitudes towards oocyte donation amongst potential donors and the general population: a systematic review. Human Fertility (Cambridge, England). 2021;24(3):169\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/14647273.2019.1602736.","journal-title":"Human Fertility (Cambridge, England)"},{"issue":"4","key":"2997_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.humrep.a137694","volume":"7","author":"LR Schover","year":"1992","unstructured":"Schover LR, Rothmann SA, Collins RL. The personality and motivation of semen donors: a comparison with oocyte donors. Hum Reprod. 1992;7(4):575\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oxfordjournals.humrep.a137694.","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"issue":"9","key":"2997_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2327","DOI":"10.1007\/s10815-024-03194-7","volume":"41","author":"RM Mortimer","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mortimer RM, Waldman IN, Leader JE, Lee MS, Ginsburg ES, Lanes A. Predictors of gamete donation: a cross sectional survey study. J Assist Reprod Genet. 2024;41(9):2327\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10815-024-03194-7.","journal-title":"J Assist Reprod Genet"},{"issue":"3","key":"2997_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2021.12.015","volume":"117","author":"S Tsai","year":"2022","unstructured":"Tsai S, Chung EH, Truong T, Farrell AS, Wu J, Ohamadike O, et al. Racial and ethnic disparities among donor oocyte banks in the United States. Fertil Steril. 2022;117(3):622\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2021.12.015.","journal-title":"Fertil Steril"},{"issue":"2","key":"2997_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xfre.2025.03.004","volume":"6","author":"AM Newman","year":"2025","unstructured":"Newman AM. Black sperm donors: motivations and hesitations. F&S Reports. 2025;6(2):231\u20133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.xfre.2025.03.004.","journal-title":"F&S Reports"},{"key":"2997_CR16","unstructured":"Fairfax Cryobank. Donor Screening, n.d. https:\/\/fairfaxcryobank.com\/donor-screening."},{"key":"2997_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Guidance Regarding Gamete and Embryo Donation. Fertil Steril. 2021;115:6. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2021.01.045.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2021.01.045"},{"key":"2997_CR18","unstructured":"Educational Attainment by Race and Ethnicity. Race and Ethnicity in Higher Education, American Counsil on Education. 2024, www.equityinhighered.org\/indicators\/u-s-population-trends-and-educational-attainment\/educational-attainment-by-race-and-ethnicity\/"},{"key":"2997_CR19","unstructured":"Lifetime Likelihood of Going to State or Federal Prison. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, US Department of Justice, Office of Justice. 1997, uat.bjs.ojp.gov\/content\/pub\/pdf\/Llgsfp.pdf"},{"issue":"1","key":"2997_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/s10815-017-1036-x","volume":"35","author":"V Provoost","year":"2018","unstructured":"Provoost V, Van Rompuy F, Pennings G. Non-donors\u2019 attitudes towards sperm donation and their willingness to donate. J Assist Reprod Genet. 2018;35(1):107\u201318. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10815-017-1036-x.","journal-title":"J Assist Reprod Genet"},{"key":"2997_CR21","unstructured":"Ethics and Practice Committees of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Updated Terminology for Gamete and Embryo Donors: Directed (Identified) to Replace \u2018known\u2019 and Nonidentified to Replace \u2018 anonymous\u2019: a Committee Opinion (2022). The American Society of Reproductive Medicine. https:\/\/www.asrm.org\/practice-guidance\/ethics-opinions\/updated-terminology-for-gamete-and-embryo-donors-directed-identied-to-replace-known-and-nonidentied-to-replace-anonymous-a-committee-opinion-2002\/. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026."},{"issue":"4","key":"2997_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rbmo.2021.06.025","volume":"43","author":"G Pennings","year":"2021","unstructured":"Pennings G, et al. \u201cAttitudes of sperm donors towards offspring, identity release and extended genetic screening.\u201d Reprod Biomed Online. 2021;43(4):700\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.rbmo.2021.06.025.","journal-title":"Reprod Biomed Online"},{"issue":"2","key":"2997_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1097\/ACM.0b013e31802d92ea","volume":"82","author":"AR Eiser","year":"2007","unstructured":"Eiser AR, Ellis G. Viewpoint: cultural competence and the African American experience with health care: the case for specific content in cross-cultural education. Acad Med. 2007;82(2):176\u201383. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/ACM.0b013e31802d92ea.","journal-title":"Acad Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"2997_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1080\/08964289.2019.1630357","volume":"45","author":"J Jaiswal","year":"2019","unstructured":"Jaiswal J. Whose responsibility is it to dismantle medical mistrust? Future directions for researchers and health care providers. Behav Med. 2019;45(2):188\u201396. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/08964289.2019.1630357.","journal-title":"Behav Med"},{"key":"2997_CR25","unstructured":"California Legislative Information. No. 7613 (2024).\u00a0https:\/\/leginfo.legislature.ca.gov\/faces\/codes_displayText.xhtml?lawCode=FAM&division=12.&title=&part=3.&chapter=2.&article=#:~:text=7613.May17,2024"},{"key":"2997_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7916\/D8T72GQV","author":"W Berkman","year":"2015","unstructured":"Berkman W, Li, Zhou. Ban the Ban: A Scientific and Cultural Analysis of the FDA\u2019s Ban on Blood Donations from Men Who Have Sex with Men. Columbia Med Rev. 2015. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7916\/D8T72GQV.","journal-title":"Columbia Med Rev"},{"key":"2997_CR27","unstructured":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Finalizes Move to Recommend Individual Risk Assessment to Determine Eligibility for Blood Donations. (2023). https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/news-events\/press-announcements\/fda-finalizes-move-recommend-individual-risk-assessment-determine-eligibility-blood-donations."},{"key":"2997_CR28","unstructured":"Whittington Health NHS, Trust. About Donating Sperm, n.d.\u00a0https:\/\/www.spermdonation.nhs.uk\/about-donating-sperm"}],"container-title":["Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40615-026-02997-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40615-026-02997-x","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40615-026-02997-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T20:15:11Z","timestamp":1778876111000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s40615-026-02997-x"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]]},"references-count":28,"alternative-id":["2997"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40615-026-02997-x","relation":{},"ISSN":["2197-3792","2196-8837"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2197-3792","type":"print"},{"value":"2196-8837","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]]},"assertion":[{"value":"19 November 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"17 March 2026","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 April 2026","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"15 May 2026","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"L.I. is a full-time employee and stockholder at CooperSurgical, Inc. K.H. is a part-time employee of Seattle Sperm Bank, LLC.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflicts of interest"}}]}}