{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T16:51:54Z","timestamp":1782924714641,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782864000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782864000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities"],"DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-026-03064-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T16:06:33Z","timestamp":1782921993000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Burden of Witnessing: The Impact of Vicarious Experiences of Racism &amp; Anti-Immigrant Discrimination on Healthcare Utilization"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1076-3688","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khadijah S.","family":"Ameen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mienah Z.","family":"Sharif","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zeruiah V.","family":"Buchanan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"H\u00e9ctor E.","family":"Alcal\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]]},"reference":[{"issue":"6","key":"3064_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1093\/geront\/gny104","volume":"59","author":"SN Forrester","year":"2019","unstructured":"Forrester SN, Gallo JJ, Whitfield KE, Thorpe RJ Jr. A framework of minority stress: From physiological manifestations to cognitive outcomes. Gerontologist. 2019;59(6):1017\u201323.","journal-title":"Gerontologist"},{"issue":"4","key":"3064_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e245288","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.5288","volume":"7","author":"N Heard-Garris","year":"2024","unstructured":"Heard-Garris N, Yu T, Brody G, Chen E, Ehrlich KB, Miller GE. Racial discrimination and metabolic syndrome in young Black adults. JAMA Netw open. 2024;7(4):e245288.","journal-title":"JAMA Netw open"},{"issue":"2","key":"3064_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-023-01561-1","volume":"11","author":"O Agbonlahor","year":"2024","unstructured":"Agbonlahor O, DeJarnett N, Hart JL, Bhatnagar A, McLeish AC, Walker KL. Racial\/ethnic discrimination and cardiometabolic diseases: a systematic review. J Racial Ethnic Health Disparities. 2024;11(2):783\u2013807.","journal-title":"J Racial Ethnic Health Disparities"},{"issue":"7","key":"3064_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1080\/13557858.2019.1613517","volume":"26","author":"AG Cuevas","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cuevas AG, Ho T, Rodgers J, DeNufrio D, Alley L, Allen J, Williams DR. Developmental timing of initial racial discrimination exposure is associated with cardiovascular health conditions in adulthood. Ethn Health. 2021;26(7):949\u201362.","journal-title":"Ethn Health"},{"key":"3064_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ajilore O, Thames AD. The fire this time: the stress of racism, inflammation and COVID-19. Brain, behavior, and immunity. 2020;88:66.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.06.003"},{"issue":"3","key":"3064_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1007\/s11577-024-00952-4","volume":"76","author":"BJ Goosby","year":"2024","unstructured":"Goosby BJ, Cheadle JE. The immune system is a complex system: inflammatory morbidity and systemic racism. KZfSS K\u00f6lner Z f\u00fcr Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie. 2024;76(3):713\u201344.","journal-title":"KZfSS K\u00f6lner Z f\u00fcr Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie"},{"issue":"9","key":"3064_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0001084","volume":"77","author":"KA Muscatell","year":"2022","unstructured":"Muscatell KA, Alvarez GM, Bonar AS, Cardenas MN, Galvan MJ, Merritt CC, Starks MD. Brain\u2013body pathways linking racism and health. Am Psychol. 2022;77(9):1049.","journal-title":"Am Psychol"},{"key":"3064_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ynpai.2022.100101","volume":"12","author":"JM Hobson","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hobson JM, Moody MD, Sorge RE, Goodin BR. The neurobiology of social stress resulting from Racism: Implications for pain disparities among racialized minorities. Neurobiol Pain. 2022;12:100101.","journal-title":"Neurobiol Pain"},{"key":"3064_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2023.01.009","volume":"325","author":"AR Macaranas","year":"2023","unstructured":"Macaranas AR, ElTohamy A, Hyun S, Chae DH, Stevens C, Chen JA, Liu CH. COVID-19-related direct and vicarious racial discrimination: Associations with psychological distress among US college students. J Affect Disord. 2023;325:747\u201354.","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"3064_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101068","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appdev.2019.101068","volume":"66","author":"D English","year":"2020","unstructured":"English D, Lambert SF, Tynes BM, Bowleg L, Zea MC, Howard LC. Daily multidimensional racial discrimination among Black US American adolescents. J Appl Dev Psychol. 2020;66:101068.","journal-title":"J Appl Dev Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"3064_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jagp.2016.11.002","volume":"25","author":"S Forrester","year":"2017","unstructured":"Forrester S. Perceived stress: A mechanism for cognitive decline among minorities? Am J Geriatric Psychiatry. 2017;25(1):35\u20136.","journal-title":"Am J Geriatric Psychiatry"},{"issue":"2","key":"3064_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.23130","volume":"38","author":"GA Woolverton","year":"2025","unstructured":"Woolverton GA, Yip T, Rastogi R, Hahm HC, Liu CH. Differential associations between race-based traumatic stress and major, everyday, and vicarious racial discrimination among young adults of color. J Trauma Stress. 2025;38(2):330\u201340.","journal-title":"J Trauma Stress"},{"issue":"11","key":"3064_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12864","DOI":"10.1111\/spc3.12864","volume":"17","author":"HI Volpert-Esmond","year":"2023","unstructured":"Volpert-Esmond HI, Aboargob M. Direct and vicarious experiences of discrimination and rumination among Latinos before and during the beginning of the COVID\u201019 pandemic. Soc Pers Psychol Compass. 2023;17(11):e12864.","journal-title":"Soc Pers Psychol Compass"},{"issue":"14","key":"3064_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2225","DOI":"10.1080\/10826084.2025.2537836","volume":"60","author":"S Rouhani","year":"2025","unstructured":"Rouhani S, Bather JR, Cuevas AG, Omari I, Harris A, McSorley AM, Rhodes-Bratton B, Goodman MS. Racial Discrimination and Substance Use: Results from a 2023 Survey of Racism and Public Health in the United States. Subst Use Misuse. 2025;60(14):2225\u201334.","journal-title":"Subst Use Misuse"},{"key":"3064_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bernard DL, Gal\u00e1n CA. Understanding the link between racial discrimination and traumatic stress symptoms among Black youth: The role of co-rumination and racism-related vigilance. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. 2025 Aug 28.","DOI":"10.1037\/tra0002026"},{"issue":"1","key":"3064_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1037\/cdp0000561","volume":"30","author":"TE Fuller-Rowell","year":"2024","unstructured":"Fuller-Rowell TE, Nichols OI, El-Sheikh M, Burrow AL, Ong AD, Ryff CD. The pandemic and social experience: For whom did discrimination and social isolation increase? Cult Divers Ethn Minor Psychol. 2024;30(1):107.","journal-title":"Cult Divers Ethn Minor Psychol"},{"issue":"2","key":"3064_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1080\/07448481.2022.2052076","volume":"72","author":"F Dong","year":"2024","unstructured":"Dong F, Hwang Y, Hodgson NA. Relationships between racial discrimination, social isolation, and mental health among international Asian graduate students during the COVID-19 pandemic. J Am Coll Health. 2024;72(2):606\u201313.","journal-title":"J Am Coll Health"},{"issue":"8","key":"3064_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.90.8.1212","volume":"90","author":"CP Jones","year":"2000","unstructured":"Jones CP. Levels of racism: a theoretic framework and a gardener\u2019s tale. Am J Public Health. 2000;90(8):1212.","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"3064_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1017\/S1742058X11000130","volume":"8","author":"GC Gee","year":"2011","unstructured":"Gee GC, Ford CL. Structural racism and health inequities: Old issues, New Directions1. Du Bois review: social Sci Res race. 2011;8(1):115\u201332.","journal-title":"Du Bois review: social Sci Res race"},{"issue":"10077","key":"3064_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30569-X","volume":"389","author":"ZD Bailey","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bailey ZD, Krieger N, Ag\u00e9nor M, Graves J, Linos N, Bassett MT. Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: evidence and interventions. lancet. 2017;389(10077):1453\u201363.","journal-title":"lancet"},{"issue":"1","key":"3064_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1186\/s41235-021-00349-3","volume":"6","author":"MR Banaji","year":"2021","unstructured":"Banaji MR, Fiske ST, Massey DS. Systemic racism: individuals and interactions, institutions and society. Cogn research: principles implications. 2021;6(1):82.","journal-title":"Cogn research: principles implications"},{"issue":"3","key":"3064_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1177\/21568693221116631","volume":"12","author":"MD Moody","year":"2022","unstructured":"Moody MD, Thomas Tobin CS, Erving CL. Vicarious experiences of major discrimination and psychological distress among black men and women. Soc mental health. 2022;12(3):175\u201394.","journal-title":"Soc mental health"},{"issue":"1","key":"3064_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-publhealth-040218-043750","volume":"40","author":"DR Williams","year":"2019","unstructured":"Williams DR, Lawrence JA, Davis BA. Racism and health: evidence and needed research. Annu Rev Public Health. 2019;40(1):105\u201325.","journal-title":"Annu Rev Public Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"3064_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1097\/HRP.0000000000000436","volume":"33","author":"GA Woolverton","year":"2025","unstructured":"Woolverton GA, Zhang W, Wong SH, Wang JJ, Nguyen V, Zhao C, Rastogi R, Yip T, Keum BT, Liu CH. Vicarious Racism and Links to Negative Emotions and Mental Health in US Adults: A Scoping Review. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2025;33(4):191\u2013212.","journal-title":"Harv Rev Psychiatry"},{"key":"3064_CR25","unstructured":"Kramer S, Passel J, in the U.S. Pew Research Center. What the data says about immigrants. 2025. https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/short-reads\/2025\/08\/21\/key-findings-about-us-immigrants\/. Accessed 9 Feb 2026."},{"key":"3064_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szaflarski M, Bauldry S. The effects of perceived discrimination on immigrant and refugee physical and mental health. In Immigration and health. 2019 Jan 7 (pp. 173\u2013204). Emerald Publishing Limited.","DOI":"10.1108\/S1057-629020190000019009"},{"issue":"6","key":"3064_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1564","DOI":"10.1007\/s10903-021-01313-5","volume":"24","author":"S Elshahat","year":"2022","unstructured":"Elshahat S, Moffat T, Newbold KB. Understanding the healthy immigrant effect in the context of mental health challenges: A systematic critical review. J Immigr Minor Health. 2022;24(6):1564\u201379.","journal-title":"J Immigr Minor Health"},{"issue":"10","key":"3064_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2279","DOI":"10.1007\/s10389-024-02193-3","volume":"33","author":"R Rabet","year":"2025","unstructured":"Rabet R, Bagree E, Salam Z, Wahoush O. Barriers and facilitators to digital primary health care access in immigrant and refugee populations: A scoping review. J Public Health. 2025;33(10):2279\u201398.","journal-title":"J Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"3064_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-080520-102803","volume":"72","author":"VM Esses","year":"2021","unstructured":"Esses VM. Prejudice and discrimination toward immigrants. Ann Rev Psychol. 2021;72(1):503\u201331.","journal-title":"Ann Rev Psychol"},{"key":"3064_CR30","unstructured":"Palosky C. Immigrants Overwhelmingly Say They and Their Children Are Better Off in the US, But Many Also Report Substantial Discrimination and Challenges, a New KFF\/Los Angeles Times Survey Reveals. Kaiser Family Foundation. 2023. https:\/\/www.kff.org\/racial-equity-and-health-policy\/immigrants-overwhelmingly-say-they-and-their-children-are-better-off-in-the-us-but-many-also-report-substantial-discrimination-and-challenges-a-new-kff-los-angeles-times-survey-reveals\/. Accessed 9 Feb 2026."},{"key":"3064_CR31","unstructured":"American Immigration Council. Immigration Detention Expansion in Trump\u2019s Second Term. American Immigration Council. 2026. https:\/\/www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org\/report\/immigration-detention\/. Accessed 9 Feb 2026."},{"issue":"6","key":"3064_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2016.1091","volume":"36","author":"A Chandra","year":"2017","unstructured":"Chandra A, Frakes M, Malani A. Challenges to reducing discrimination and health inequity through existing civil rights laws. Health Aff. 2017;36(6):1041\u20137.","journal-title":"Health Aff"},{"key":"3064_CR33","unstructured":"Kaiser Family Foundation. How History Has Shaped Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities. Kaiser Family Foundation. 2024. https:\/\/www.kff.org\/racial-equity-and-health-policy\/how-history-has-shaped-racial-and-ethnic-health-disparities-a-timeline-of-policies-and-events\/. Accessed 9 Feb 2026."},{"issue":"2","key":"3064_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2021.01466","volume":"41","author":"R Yearby","year":"2022","unstructured":"Yearby R, Clark B, Figueroa JF. Structural Racism In Historical And Modern US Health Care Policy: Study examines structural racism in historical and modern US health care policy. Health Aff. 2022;41(2):187\u201394.","journal-title":"Health Aff"},{"issue":"2","key":"3064_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1080\/01488376.2022.2035300","volume":"48","author":"GM Tefera","year":"2022","unstructured":"Tefera GM, Yu M. Immigrant women\u2019s access to healthcare services in the United States: A qualitative meta-synthesis. J social service Res. 2022;48(2):285\u201399.","journal-title":"J social service Res"},{"key":"3064_CR36","unstructured":"Togioka B, Young E. Diversity and discrimination in health care. StatPearls. 2024 May 2."},{"issue":"5","key":"3064_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-010-1257-5","volume":"25","author":"DH Sorkin","year":"2010","unstructured":"Sorkin DH, Ngo-Metzger Q, De Alba I. Racial\/ethnic discrimination in health care: impact on perceived quality of care. J Gen Intern Med. 2010;25(5):390\u20136.","journal-title":"J Gen Intern Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"3064_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1111\/1475-6773.13693","volume":"56","author":"ME Peek","year":"2021","unstructured":"Peek ME. Racism and health: a call to action for health services research. Health Serv Res. 2021;56(4):569.","journal-title":"Health Serv Res"},{"issue":"4","key":"3064_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2022.23867","volume":"329","author":"C Shachar","year":"2023","unstructured":"Shachar C, Gerke S. Prevention of bias and discrimination in clinical practice algorithms. JAMA. 2023;329(4):283\u20134.","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"S3","key":"3064_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S517","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2015.302668","volume":"105","author":"X Han","year":"2015","unstructured":"Han X, Call KT, Pintor JK, Alarcon-Espinoza G, Simon AB. Reports of insurance-based discrimination in health care and its association with access to care. Am J Public Health. 2015;105(S3):S517\u201325.","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"3064_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1353\/hpu.0.0273","volume":"21","author":"CP Mouton","year":"2010","unstructured":"Mouton CP, Carter-Nolan PL, Makambi KH, Taylor TR, Palmer JR, Rosenberg L, Adams-Campbell LL. Impact of perceived racial discrimination on health screening in black women. J Health Care Poor Underserved. 2010;21(1):287\u2013300.","journal-title":"J Health Care Poor Underserved"},{"issue":"7","key":"3064_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-005-0104-6","volume":"20","author":"CH Van Houtven","year":"2005","unstructured":"Van Houtven CH, Voils CI, Oddone EZ, Weinfurt KP, Friedman JY, Schulman KA, Bosworth HB. Perceived discrimination and reported delay of pharmacy prescriptions and medical tests. J Gen Intern Med. 2005;20(7):578\u201383.","journal-title":"J Gen Intern Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"3064_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/S0033-3549(04)50262-5","volume":"118","author":"LE Boulware","year":"2003","unstructured":"Boulware LE, Cooper LA, Ratner LE, LaVeist TA, Powe NR. Race and trust in the health care system. Public Health Rep. 2003;118(4):358.","journal-title":"Public Health Rep"},{"key":"3064_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mundy LM, Judd SE, Clay OJ, Howard VJ, Durant RW, Ballard EE, Crowe M. Correlates of Patient Trust in Doctors: Demographic Factors and Experiences of Medical Care Discrimination. J Gen Intern Med. 2025 Mar;31:1\u20137.","DOI":"10.1093\/geroni\/igad104.3248"},{"issue":"2","key":"3064_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1097\/MLR.0b013e31827310a1","volume":"51","author":"K Armstrong","year":"2013","unstructured":"Armstrong K, Putt M, Halbert CH, Grande D, Schwartz JS, Liao K, Marcus N, Demeter MB, Shea JA. Prior experiences of racial discrimination and racial differences in health care system distrust. Med Care. 2013;51(2):144\u201350.","journal-title":"Med Care"},{"key":"3064_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2013.12.021","volume":"104","author":"D Chen","year":"2014","unstructured":"Chen D, Yang TC. The pathways from perceived discrimination to self-rated health: An investigation of the roles of distrust, social capital, and health behaviors. Soc Sci Med. 2014;104:64\u201373.","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"issue":"11","key":"3064_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e55","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2013.301554","volume":"103","author":"YL Cuffee","year":"2013","unstructured":"Cuffee YL, Hargraves JL, Rosal M, Briesacher BA, Schoenthaler A, Person S, Hullett S, Allison J. Reported racial discrimination, trust in physicians, and medication adherence among inner-city African Americans with hypertension. Am J Public Health. 2013;103(11):e55\u201362.","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"3064_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116806","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2024.116806","volume":"348","author":"KL Mason","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mason KL, Hood KB, Perrin PB, Belgrave FZ, Allison KW, Coston BE. Direct and vicarious exposure to healthcare discrimination and erasure among transgender and gender independent individuals: Testing the indirect effect of mistrust in healthcare on utilization behaviors. Soc Sci Med. 2024;348:116806.","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"3064_CR49","unstructured":"Mason KL. Assessing the Relationships Between Direct and Vicarious Exposure to Healthcare Discrimination and Erasure, Mistrust in Healthcare, and the Healthcare Utilization Behaviors Among Transgender and Gender Independent Individuals. 2023."},{"issue":"1","key":"3064_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1080\/08964289.2021.1958740","volume":"49","author":"LD Williamson","year":"2023","unstructured":"Williamson LD. Testing vicarious experiences as antecedents of medical mistrust: a survey of black and white Americans. Behav Med. 2023;49(1):40\u201352.","journal-title":"Behav Med"},{"key":"3064_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frost DM, Meyer IH. Minority stress theory: Application, critique, and continued relevance. Curr Opin Psychol. 2023 April 6; 51(101579).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2023.101579"},{"issue":"1","key":"3064_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1037\/h0087722","volume":"70","author":"SP Harrell","year":"2000","unstructured":"Harrell SP. A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well\u2010being of people of color. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2000;70(1):42\u201357.","journal-title":"Am J Orthopsychiatry"},{"key":"3064_CR53","unstructured":"Andersen R. A behavioral model of families\u2019 use of health services. 1968; xi+-111."},{"key":"3064_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andersen RM. Revisiting the behavioral model and access to medical care: does it matter? J Health Soc Behav. 1995 Mar;1:1\u20130.","DOI":"10.2307\/2137284"},{"issue":"2","key":"3064_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215824401664813","DOI":"10.1177\/2158244016648137","volume":"6","author":"PQ Yang","year":"2016","unstructured":"Yang PQ, Hwang SH. Explaining immigrant health service utilization: a theoretical framework. Sage Open. 2016;6(2):2158244016648137.","journal-title":"Sage Open"},{"key":"3064_CR56","unstructured":"California Health Interview Survey. CHIS 2024 Adult Survey. UCLA Center for Health Policy Research. 2025. https:\/\/healthpolicy.ucla.edu\/system\/files?file=protected\/CHIS%202024%20Data%20Dictionary%20-%20PUF%20-%20Adult%20Oct%202025.pdf. Accessed 9 Feb 2026."},{"issue":"3","key":"3064_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.25.3.378","volume":"25","author":"H Zaykowski","year":"2010","unstructured":"Zaykowski H. Racial disparities in hate crime reporting. Violence Vict. 2010;25(3):378.","journal-title":"Violence Vict"},{"key":"3064_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oh H, Winn J, Misra S, Nallajerla M, Besecker M, Wong K, Moreno C, Moody M. Vicarious Racial Discrimination and Mental Health among Adults: A Scoping Review of Literature Published between 2010 and 2023. J Racial Ethnic Health Disparities. 2026 Jan 15:1\u20136.","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-025-02824-9"},{"key":"3064_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2023.01.009","volume":"325","author":"AR Macaranas","year":"2023","unstructured":"Macaranas AR, ElTohamy A, Hyun S, Chae DH, Stevens C, Chen JA, Liu CH. COVID-19-related direct and vicarious racial discrimination: Associations with psychological distress among US college students. J Affect Disord. 2023;325:747\u201354.","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"issue":"5","key":"3064_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1044","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-019-00606-8","volume":"6","author":"CD Martz","year":"2019","unstructured":"Martz CD, Allen AM, Fuller-Rowell TE, Spears EC, Lim SS, Drenkard C, Chung K, Hunter EA, Chae DH. Vicarious racism stress and disease activity: the Black women\u2019s experiences living with lupus (BeWELL) study. J racial ethnic health disparities. 2019;6(5):1044\u201351.","journal-title":"J racial ethnic health disparities"},{"key":"3064_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ElTohamy A, Hyun S, Rastogi R, Finneas Wong GT, Kim GS, Chae DH, Hahm H, Liu CH. Effect of vicarious discrimination on race-based stress symptoms among Asian American young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. 2024;16(2):217.","DOI":"10.1037\/tra0001480"},{"key":"3064_CR62","unstructured":"McMenamin L. \u2018Backing down isn\u2019t an option\u2019: Minnesota ICE shootings mobilize Americans to join ICE observer groups. The Guardian. 2026. https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/us-news\/ng-interactive\/2026\/jan\/31\/ice-observer-document-immigration-agents. Accessed 9 Feb 2026."},{"key":"3064_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruiz Malagon JC, Hernandez-Arriaga B, Reyna Rivarola AR, Argenal A, Berens AE. Legal Violence as a Structural Determinant of Health in US Immigration Governance. Volume 5. Community Health Equity Research & Policy; 2025 Jul. p. 2752535X261418333.","DOI":"10.1177\/2752535X261418333"},{"key":"3064_CR64","unstructured":"Hayes J, Skelton A, Lofstrom M. Hate Crimes Fell in California Last Year, but Religion-based Incidents Increased Sharply. https:\/\/www.ppic.org\/blog\/hate-crimes-fell-in-california-last-year-but-religion-based-incidents-increased-sharply\/. 2024. Accessed 15 May 2026."},{"key":"3064_CR65","unstructured":"Governor Gavin Newsom. Governor Newsom Announces the Launch of CA vs Hate, a New Statewide Hotline to Report Hate Acts in California. https:\/\/www.gov.ca.gov\/2023\/05\/04\/governor-newsom-announces-the-launch-of-ca-vs-hate-a-new-statewide-hotline-to-report-hate-acts-in-california\/. 2023. Accessed 15 May 2026."},{"key":"3064_CR66","unstructured":"Immigration Policy Tracking Project. Tracking Trump Administration Immigration Policies. Immigration Policy Tracking Project. 2026. https:\/\/immpolicytracking.org\/. Accessed 9 Feb 2026."},{"key":"3064_CR67","unstructured":"Human Rights First Innovation Lab. Democracy Watch: Tracking Legislative Threats. Human Rights First. 2026. https:\/\/www.democracywatchtracker.org\/. Accessed 9 Feb 2026."},{"key":"3064_CR68","unstructured":"American Civil Liberties Union. In 2025, the ACLU tracked 616Anti-LGBTQ bills in the U.S. American Civil Liberties Union. 2025. https:\/\/www.aclu.org\/legislative-attacks-on-lgbtq-rights-2025. Accessed 9 Feb 2026."},{"key":"3064_CR69","unstructured":"Chronicle Staff. DEI Legislation Tracker. The Chronicle of Higher Education. 2026. https:\/\/www.chronicle.com\/article\/here-are-the-states-where-lawmakers-are-seeking-to-ban-colleges-dei-efforts. Accessed 9 Feb 2026."},{"key":"3064_CR70","unstructured":"Mejia M, Johnson H. Immigrants in California. Public Policy Institute of California. 2026. https:\/\/www.ppic.org\/publication\/immigrants-in-california\/. Accessed 9 Feb 2026."}],"container-title":["Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40615-026-03064-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40615-026-03064-1","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40615-026-03064-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T16:07:12Z","timestamp":1782922032000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s40615-026-03064-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]]},"references-count":70,"alternative-id":["3064"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40615-026-03064-1","relation":{},"ISSN":["2197-3792","2196-8837"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2197-3792","type":"print"},{"value":"2196-8837","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"18 February 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 May 2026","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"9 June 2026","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 July 2026","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing Interests"}},{"value":"This study did not require ethics approval.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics Approval"}}]}}