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Importantly, this non-transparency is not, as in some languages tolerating a mild degree of irregularity (e.g., Spanish\n                    <jats:italic>catorce<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u201814\u2019,\n                    <jats:italic>cuarenta<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u201840\u2019, which are not transparent combinations of\n                    <jats:italic>cuatro<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u20184\u2019 and\n                    <jats:italic>diez<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u201810\u2019), limited to the teens and decade forms. As an example, Hindi\/Urdu\n                    <jats:italic>iky\u0101nve<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u201891\u2019 is not decomposable into the composite elements\n                    <jats:italic>ek<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2018one\u2019 and\n                    <jats:italic>nave<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2018ninety\u2019 in the way that its English counterpart is. This paper further clarifies the position of Indo-Aryan languages within the typology of numeral systems, and explores the linguistic and non-linguistic factors that may be responsible for the persistence of complex systems in these languages. Using data from multiple databases, we develop and employ a number of cross-linguistically applicable metrics to quantify the complexity of languages\u2019 numeral systems, and demonstrate that Indo-Aryan languages have decisively more complex numeral systems than the world\u2019s languages as a whole, though individual Indo-Aryan languages differ from each other in terms of the complexity of the patterns they display. We investigate the factors (e.g., religion, geographic isolation, etc.) that underlie complexity in numeral systems, with a focus on South Asia, in an attempt to develop an account of why complex numeral systems developed and persisted in certain Indo-Aryan languages but not elsewhere. Finally, we demonstrate that Indo-Aryan numeral systems adhere to certain general pressures toward efficient communication found cross-linguistically, despite their high complexity. We call for this somewhat overlooked dimension of complexity to be taken seriously when discussing general variation in numeral systems.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s41809-026-00197-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T14:19:41Z","timestamp":1775571581000},"page":"147-166","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Complexity counts: global and local perspectives on Indo-Aryan numeral systems"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3066-4532","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chundra A.","family":"Cathcart","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"197_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1353\/lan.2013.0054","volume":"89","author":"F Ackerman","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ackerman, F., & Malouf, R. 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