{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,7]],"date-time":"2026-11-07T04:47:51Z","timestamp":1794026871378,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]],"date-time":"2025-10-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759708800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]],"date-time":"2025-10-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759708800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Hum.-Intell. Syst. Integr."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>As aviation advances toward greater automation and data integration, human-centered design, regulatory alignment, and collaborative autonomy remain critical. This paper examines the integration of human-centric intelligent systems through three domains: artificial cognitive systems (ACS) in fatigue risk management, AI-supported accident investigation, and immersive mixed-reality (MR) training for eVTOL pilots. In fatigue risk management, ACS tools leverage real-time biometric data and predictive algorithms to provide adaptive recommendations aligned with International Civil Aviation Organization\u2019s (ICAO) Doc 9966 and Federal Aviation Administration\u2019s (FAA)\/European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) regulations. AI-enhanced investigation methods, incorporating models such as HFACS, STAMP-STPA, and BowTie, enable systemic risk analysis, scenario reconstruction, and early hazard detection while maintaining human oversight. In pilot training, immersive MR platforms, integrated with AI, offer adaptive, high-fidelity environments that accelerate skill acquisition for emerging AAM operations. The proposed Human\u2013Intelligent Systems Integration (HISI) framework is conceived as a comprehensive model that places human expertise at its core, while incorporating adaptive forms of intelligence to enhance decision-making in complex environments. It is built upon the main three key pillars: alignment with regulatory expectations, operational transparency, and a culture of ongoing learning\u2014ensuring that human judgement remains central even as intelligent systems evolve alongside. Strategic recommendations are provided for researchers, regulators, and industry stakeholders to ensure that future intelligent systems enhance, rather than replace, human capability in safety\u2013critical aviation contexts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s42454-025-00083-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]],"date-time":"2025-10-06T03:22:10Z","timestamp":1759720930000},"page":"249-262","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Designing human-centric intelligent systems in aviation: applications of artificial cognitive systems, AI-enhanced investigations, and immersive eVTOL simulation training"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7421-2071","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitrios","family":"Ziakkas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-1720-2233","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Debra","family":"Henneberry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9706-5948","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anastasios","family":"Plioutsias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"83_CR1","unstructured":"ASTi (2025) Simulated Air Traffic Control Environment (SATCE).\u00a0https:\/\/www.asti-usa.com\/satce. Accessed 10 Apr 2025"},{"issue":"2","key":"83_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2009.12.006","volume":"43","author":"TJ Balkin","year":"2011","unstructured":"Balkin TJ, Horrey WJ, Graeber RC, Czeisler CA, Dinges DF (2011) The challenges and opportunities of technological approaches to fatigue management. Accid Anal Prev 43(2):565\u2013572","journal-title":"Accid Anal Prev"},{"key":"83_CR3","unstructured":"Barger LK, Flynn-Evans EE, Kubey A, Walsh L, Ronda JM, Wang W, ... Czeisler CA (2014) Prevalence of fatigue among commercial pilots in the United States. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 72(5):1\u20136"},{"issue":"2","key":"83_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1191\/1478088706qp063oa","volume":"3","author":"V Braun","year":"2006","unstructured":"Braun V, Clarke V (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol 3(2):77\u2013101","journal-title":"Qual Res Psychol"},{"key":"83_CR5","unstructured":"Creswell JW, Creswell JD (2018) Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches, 5th edn. SAGE Publications, Inc, p 304"},{"issue":"2","key":"83_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2013.03.003","volume":"18","author":"D Dawson","year":"2014","unstructured":"Dawson D, Searle AK, Paterson JL (2014) Look before you (s)leap: evaluating the use of fatigue detection technologies within a fatigue risk management system for the road transport industry. Sleep Med Rev 18(2):141\u2013152","journal-title":"Sleep Med Rev"},{"key":"83_CR7","unstructured":"Dekker S (2014) The field guide to understanding \u2018human error. CRC Press, p 248"},{"issue":"1","key":"83_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720816681350","volume":"59","author":"MR Endsley","year":"2017","unstructured":"Endsley MR (2017) From here to autonomy: lessons learned from human\u2013automation research. Hum Factors 59(1):5\u201327","journal-title":"Hum Factors"},{"issue":"2","key":"83_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1518\/001872095779064555","volume":"37","author":"MR Endsley","year":"1995","unstructured":"Endsley MR, Kiris EO (1995) The out-of-the-loop performance problem and level of control in automation. Hum Factors 37(2):381\u2013394","journal-title":"Hum Factors"},{"key":"83_CR10","unstructured":"European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) (2020) Flight time limitations (FTL) and fatigue risk management (FRM).\u00a0https:\/\/www.easa.europa.eu\/en\/research-projects\/effectiveness-flight-time-limitations-ftl"},{"key":"83_CR11","unstructured":"European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) (2023a) Artificial intelligence roadmap 2.0.\u00a0https:\/\/www.easa.europa.eu\/en\/document-library\/general-publications\/easa-artificial-intelligence-roadmap-20"},{"key":"83_CR12","unstructured":"European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) (2023b) EASA AI trustworthiness guidelines.\u00a0https:\/\/www.easa.europa.eu\/sites\/default\/files\/dfu\/2023-05-16_easa_ai_days_slideware_day1_final.pdf"},{"key":"83_CR13","unstructured":"European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) (2024) Special conditions for VTOL.\u00a0https:\/\/www.easa.europa.eu\/en\/domains\/aircraft-certification\/special-conditions\/special-condition-vtol.\u00a0Accessed 10 Apr 2025"},{"key":"83_CR14","unstructured":"Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) (2021a) FAA updates on Boeing 737 MAX. https:\/\/www.faa.gov\/newsroom\/faa-updates-boeing-737-max-0. Accessed\u00a010 Apr 2025"},{"key":"83_CR15","unstructured":"Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) (2021b) Urban air mobility (UAM) concept of operations (ConOps) Version 1.0.\u00a0https:\/\/www.faa.gov\/air-taxis\/uam_blueprintCreswellJW"},{"key":"83_CR16","unstructured":"Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) (2024) Urban air mobility (UAM) concept of operations 2.0.\u00a0https:\/\/www.easa.europa.eu\/en\/document-library\/product-certification-consultations\/special-condition-vtol"},{"issue":"12","key":"83_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1010","DOI":"10.3357\/AMHP.4625.2016","volume":"87","author":"EE Flynn-Evans","year":"2016","unstructured":"Flynn-Evans EE, Barger LK, Kubey AA, Sullivan JP, Czeisler CA (2016) Predicting cognitive performance using biomathematical fatigue models. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 87(12):1010\u20131016","journal-title":"Aerosp Med Hum Perform"},{"issue":"5","key":"83_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720811417254","volume":"53","author":"PA Hancock","year":"2011","unstructured":"Hancock PA, Billings DR, Schaefer KE, Chen JY, Visser EJ, Parasuraman R (2011) A meta-analysis of factors affecting trust in human-robot interaction. Hum Factors 53(5):517\u2013527","journal-title":"Hum Factors"},{"key":"83_CR19","first-page":"132","volume":"160","author":"D Henneberry","year":"2025","unstructured":"Henneberry D, Ziakkas D (2025) The role of artificial cognitive systems in the implementation of aviation fatigue risk management systems. Intelligent Human Systems Integration 160:132","journal-title":"Intelligent Human Systems Integration"},{"key":"83_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hollnagel E (2012) FRAM: The functional resonance analysis method: modelling complex socio-technical systems, 1st edn. CRC Press, London, p 160.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1201\/9781315255071","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315255071"},{"key":"83_CR21","unstructured":"International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) (2023a) Manual for the oversight of fatigue management approaches (Doc 9966). International Civil Aviation Organization"},{"key":"83_CR22","unstructured":"International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) (2023b) Manual on remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS) (Doc 10019).\u00a0https:\/\/store.icao.int\/en\/manual-on-remotely-piloted-aircraft-systems-rpas-doc-10019"},{"key":"83_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315563220","volume-title":"Competency-based education in aviation: exploring alternate training pathways","author":"SK Kearns","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kearns SK, Mavin TJ, Hodge S (2017) Competency-based education in aviation: exploring alternate training pathways. Routledge"},{"key":"83_CR24","first-page":"282","volume":"87","author":"J Lee","year":"2019","unstructured":"Lee J, Hwang J, Ryu S (2019) Exploring immersive VR training effectiveness on task proficiency, situational awareness, and perceived workload in aviation. Aerosp Sci Technol 87:282\u2013294","journal-title":"Aerosp Sci Technol"},{"issue":"1","key":"83_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1518\/hfes.46.1.50.30392","volume":"46","author":"JD Lee","year":"2004","unstructured":"Lee JD, See KA (2004) Trust in automation: designing for appropriate reliance. Hum Factors 46(1):50\u201380","journal-title":"Hum Factors"},{"issue":"2","key":"83_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1518\/155534308X284417","volume":"2","author":"R Parasuraman","year":"2008","unstructured":"Parasuraman R, Sheridan TB, Wickens CD (2008) Situation awareness, mental workload, and trust in automation: viable, empirically supported cognitive engineering constructs. J Cogn Eng Decis Mak 2(2):140\u2013160","journal-title":"J Cogn Eng Decis Mak"},{"key":"83_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Reason J (1997) Managing the risks of organizational accidents, 1st edn.\u00a0Routledge, London, p 272.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9781315543543","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315543543"},{"key":"83_CR28","unstructured":"Saunders MNK, Lewis P, Thornhill A (2019) Research methods for business students, 8th edn. Pearson Education Limited, p 872"},{"issue":"3","key":"83_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720816634228","volume":"58","author":"KE Schaefer","year":"2016","unstructured":"Schaefer KE, Chen JY, Szalma JL, Hancock PA (2016) A meta-analysis of factors influencing the development of trust in automation: implications for understanding autonomy in future systems. Hum Factors 58(3):377\u2013400","journal-title":"Hum Factors"},{"issue":"3","key":"83_CR30","first-page":"22","volume":"8","author":"AQ Stewarts","year":"2012","unstructured":"Stewarts AQ (2012) The Air France 447 investigation and legal case: lessons learned. Aviat Law Rev 8(3):22\u201334","journal-title":"Aviat Law Rev"},{"key":"83_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420005684","volume-title":"Joint cognitive systems: patterns in cognitive systems engineering","author":"DD Woods","year":"2006","unstructured":"Woods DD, Hollnagel E (2006) Joint cognitive systems: patterns in cognitive systems engineering. CRC Press"},{"key":"83_CR32","first-page":"246","volume":"160","author":"D Ziakkas","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ziakkas D, Henneberry D (2025) The challenges of integrating AI in aviation incident-accident investigations: a human-centric approach. Intell Hum Syst Integr 160:246\u2013255","journal-title":"Intell Hum Syst Integr"},{"key":"83_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003480891","author":"D Ziakkas","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ziakkas D, Plioutsias A (2024) Artificial intelligence and human performance in transportation. CRC Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1201\/9781003480891","journal-title":"CRC Press"}],"container-title":["Human-Intelligent Systems Integration"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s42454-025-00083-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s42454-025-00083-x","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s42454-025-00083-x.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]],"date-time":"2026-02-06T14:18:06Z","timestamp":1770387486000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s42454-025-00083-x"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["83"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s42454-025-00083-x","relation":{},"ISSN":["2524-4876","2524-4884"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2524-4876","type":"print"},{"value":"2524-4884","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"5 May 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 September 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 October 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable. The study does not involve human participants or animal subjects requiring institutional review board approval.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"All authors have reviewed and approved the manuscript and consent to its publication.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}]}}