{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T16:35:35Z","timestamp":1787330135822,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787270400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."],"DOI":"10.1007\/s44402-026-00171-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T15:49:08Z","timestamp":1787327348000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Myopia Prevalence, Ocular Metrics and Visual Activity in United States Optometry Students"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"given":"Barsha","family":"Lal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew M.","family":"Keyzer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John Kwesi","family":"Assan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jason D.","family":"Marsack","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Han","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lisa A.","family":"Ostrin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"171_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e339","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(13)70113-X","volume":"1","author":"RR Bourne","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bourne RR, Stevens GA, White RA, Smith JL, Flaxman SR, Price H, et al. Causes of vision loss worldwide, 1990\u20132010: a systematic analysis. Lancet Glob Health. 2013;1:e339\u201349. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2214-109X(13)70113-X.","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"171_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2016.01.006","volume":"123","author":"BA Holden","year":"2016","unstructured":"Holden BA, Fricke TR, Wilson DA, Jong M, Naidoo KS, Sankaridurg P, et al. Global prevalence of myopia and high myopia and temporal trends from 2000 through 2050. Ophthalmol. 2016;123:1036\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ophtha.2016.01.006.","journal-title":"Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2015-307724","volume":"100","author":"AR Rudnicka","year":"2016","unstructured":"Rudnicka AR, Kapetanakis VV, Wathern AK, Logan NS, Gilmartin B, Whincup PH, et al. Global variations and time trends in the prevalence of childhood myopia, a systematic review and quantitative meta-analysis: implications for aetiology and early prevention. Br J Ophthalmol. 2016;100:882\u201390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2015-307724.","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.62.5.5","volume":"62","author":"K Ohno-Matsui","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ohno-Matsui K, Wu PC, Yamashiro K, Vutipongsatorn K, Fang Y, Cheung CMG, et al. IMI pathologic myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2021;62:5 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.62.5.5.","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2012.06.004","volume":"31","author":"DI Flitcroft","year":"2012","unstructured":"Flitcroft DI. The complex interactions of retinal, optical and environmental factors in myopia aetiology. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2012;31:622\u201360. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2012.06.004.","journal-title":"Prog Retin Eye Res"},{"key":"171_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0420.2001.790603.x","volume":"79","author":"K Grodum","year":"2001","unstructured":"Grodum K, Heijl A, Bengtsson B. Refractive error and glaucoma. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2001;79:560\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1034\/j.1600-0420.2001.790603.x.","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol Scand"},{"key":"171_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.2013.280","volume":"28","author":"PJ Foster","year":"2014","unstructured":"Foster PJ, Jiang Y. Epidemiology of myopia. Eye (Lond). 2014;28:202\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/eye.2013.280.","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)"},{"key":"171_CR8","first-page":"3021","volume":"40","author":"R Lim","year":"1999","unstructured":"Lim R, Mitchell P, Cumming RG. Refractive associations with cataract: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999;40:3021\u20136.","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2013.08.010","volume":"157","author":"TY Wong","year":"2014","unstructured":"Wong TY, Ferreira A, Hughes R, Carter G, Mitchell P. Epidemiology and disease burden of pathologic myopia and myopic choroidal neovascularization: an evidence-based systematic review. Am J Ophthalmol. 2014;157:9\u201325 e12. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ajo.2013.08.010.","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1442-9071.2004.00003.x","volume":"32","author":"PJ Polkinghorne","year":"2004","unstructured":"Polkinghorne PJ, Craig JP. Northern New Zealand rhegmatogenous retinal detachment study: epidemiology and risk factors. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2004;32:159\u201363. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1442-9071.2004.00003.x.","journal-title":"Clin Exp Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"M89","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.18-25965","volume":"60","author":"MS Tedja","year":"2019","unstructured":"Tedja MS, Haarman AEG, Meester-Smoor MA, Kaprio J, Mackey DA, Guggenheim JA, et al. IMI\u2014myopia genetics report. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2019;60:M89\u2013M105. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.18-25965.","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep25853","volume":"6","author":"Q Fan","year":"2016","unstructured":"Fan Q, Guo X, Tideman JW, Williams KM, Yazar S, Hosseini SM, et al. Childhood gene\u2013environment interactions and age-dependent effects of genetic variants associated with refractive error and myopia: the CREAM Consortium. Sci Rep. 2016;6:25853. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/srep25853.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"171_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.62.5.3","volume":"62","author":"IG Morgan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Morgan IG, Wu PC, Ostrin LA, Tideman JWL, Yam JC, Lan W, et al. IMI risk factors for myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2021;62:3 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.62.5.3.","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.15043","volume":"100","author":"S Gajjar","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gajjar S, Ostrin LA. A systematic review of near work and myopia: measurement, relationships, mechanisms and clinical corollaries. Acta Ophthalmol. 2022;100:376\u201387. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/aos.15043.","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2007.12.019","volume":"115","author":"KA Rose","year":"2008","unstructured":"Rose KA, Morgan IG, Ip J, Kifley A, Huynh S, Smith W, et al. Outdoor activity reduces the prevalence of myopia in children. Ophthalmol. 2008;115:1279\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ophtha.2007.12.019.","journal-title":"Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Smith EL. III. Spectacle lenses and emmetropization: the role of optical defocus in regulating ocular development. Optom Vis Sci. 1998;75:388\u201398.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/00006324-199806000-00023.","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-199806000-00023"},{"key":"171_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.61.11.42","volume":"61","author":"DI Flitcroft","year":"2020","unstructured":"Flitcroft DI, Harb EN, Wildsoet CF. The spatial frequency content of urban and indoor environments as a potential risk factor for myopia development. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2020;61:42 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.61.11.42.","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7871","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.13-12403","volume":"54","author":"COMET Group","year":"2013","unstructured":"COMET GroupMyopia stabilization and associated factors among participants in the Correction of Myopia Evaluation Trial (COMET). Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2013;54:7871\u201384. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.13-12403.","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2020-316234","volume":"106","author":"JR Polling","year":"2022","unstructured":"Polling JR, Klaver C, Tideman JW. Myopia progression from wearing first glasses to adult age: the DREAM study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2022;106:820\u20134. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2020-316234.","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-198707000-00015","volume":"64","author":"K Zadnik","year":"1987","unstructured":"Zadnik K, Mutti DO. Refractive error changes in law students. Am J Optom Physiol Opt. 1987;64:558\u201361. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/00006324-198707000-00015.","journal-title":"Am J Optom Physiol Opt"},{"key":"171_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.64.6.2","volume":"64","author":"MA Bullimore","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bullimore MA, Lee SS, Schmid KL, Rozema JJ, Leveziel N, Mallen EAH, et al. IMI-Onset and progression of myopia in young adults. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2023;64:2 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.64.6.2.","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR22","first-page":"321","volume":"38","author":"NA McBrien","year":"1997","unstructured":"McBrien NA, Adams DW. A longitudinal investigation of adult-onset and adult-progression of myopia in an occupational group. Refractive and biometric findings. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1997;38:321\u201333.","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.1016\/s0161-6420(02)01012-6","volume":"109","author":"J Loman","year":"2002","unstructured":"Loman J, Quinn GE, Kamoun L, Ying GS, Maguire MG, Hudesman D, et al. Darkness and near work: myopia and its progression in third-year law students. Ophthalmol. 2002;109:1032\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0161-6420(02)01012-6.","journal-title":"Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Khan HA, Tran H, Naduvilath TJ, Tahhan N, Ha T, Sankaridurg P. Design and baseline characteristics of a prospective, longitudinal study of myopia progression in young adults (MAP). Clin Exp Optom. 2026:1\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/08164622.2026.2634924.","DOI":"10.1080\/08164622.2026.2634924"},{"key":"171_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1097\/01.opx.0000230274.42843.28","volume":"83","author":"MA Bullimore","year":"2006","unstructured":"Bullimore MA, Reuter KS, Jones LA, Mitchell GL, Zoz J, Rah MJ. The study of progression of adult nearsightedness (SPAN): Design and baseline characteristics. Optom Vis Sci. 2006;83:594\u2013604. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/01.opx.0000230274.42843.28.","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000002228","volume":"102","author":"B Lal","year":"2025","unstructured":"Lal B, Joseph J, Cantrell A, Cheng H, Ostrin LA. Myopia in Houston optometry graduates from 2013 to 2023. Optom Vis Sci. 2025;102:289\u201398. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/OPX.0000000000002228.","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1080\/08164622.2023.2243264","volume":"107","author":"S Gajjar","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gajjar S, Ostrin LA. Development of the University of Houston near work, environment, activity, and refraction (UH NEAR) survey for myopia. Clin Exp Optom. 2024;107:544\u201357. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/08164622.2023.2243264.","journal-title":"Clin Exp Optom"},{"key":"171_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.12642","volume":"93","author":"IG Morgan","year":"2015","unstructured":"Morgan IG, Iribarren R, Fotouhi A, Grzybowski A. Cycloplegic refraction is the gold standard for epidemiological studies. Acta Ophthalmol. 2015;93:581\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/aos.12642.","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1969","DOI":"10.1007\/s10792-020-01371-y","volume":"40","author":"HB Ozdemir","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ozdemir HB, Sekeroglu MA. The effect of topical tropicamide and phenylephrine on macular and peripapillary microvasculature: an optical coherence tomography angiography study. Int Ophthalmol. 2020;40:1969\u201376. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10792-020-01371-y.","journal-title":"Int Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.2016.61","volume":"30","author":"V Oner","year":"2016","unstructured":"Oner V, Bulut A, Oter K. The effect of topical anti-muscarinic agents on subfoveal choroidal thickness in healthy adults. Eye (Lond). 2016;30:925\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/eye.2016.61.","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)"},{"key":"171_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-020-0995-9","volume":"35","author":"C Iovino","year":"2021","unstructured":"Iovino C, Chhablani J, Rasheed MA, Tatti F, Bernabei F, Pellegrini M, et al. Effects of different mydriatics on the choroidal vascularity in healthy subjects. Eye (Lond). 2021;35:913\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41433-020-0995-9.","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)"},{"key":"171_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Rocholz R, Teussink M, Dolz-Marco R, Holzhey C, Dechent J, Tafreshi A, et al. SPECTRALIS optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA): principles and clinical applications. Heidelb Eng Acad. 2018;1:2\u201310.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4103\/tjo.tjo_31_17.","DOI":"10.4103\/tjo.tjo_31_17"},{"key":"171_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2017-310700","volume":"102","author":"BJ Fenner","year":"2018","unstructured":"Fenner BJ, Tan GSW, Tan ACS, Yeo IYS, Wong TY, Cheung GCM. Identification of imaging features that determine quality and repeatability of retinal capillary plexus density measurements in OCT angiography. Br J Ophthalmol. 2018;102:509\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2017-310700.","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"M20","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.18-25957","volume":"60","author":"DI Flitcroft","year":"2019","unstructured":"Flitcroft DI, He M, Jonas JB, Jong M, Naidoo K, Ohno-Matsui K, et al. IMI - Defining and classifying myopia: a proposed set of standards for clinical and epidemiologic studies. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2019;60:M20\u2013M30. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.18-25957.","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optom.2021.09.001","volume":"15","author":"E Shneor","year":"2022","unstructured":"Shneor E, Doron R, Ostrin LA, Gordon-Shaag A. The prevalence of refractive errors in college students in Israel. J Optom. 2022;15:284\u201392. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.optom.2021.09.001.","journal-title":"J Optom"},{"key":"171_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.65.4.22","volume":"65","author":"LA Ostrin","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ostrin LA, Sah RP, Queener HM, Patel NB, Tran R, Shukla D, et al. Short-term myopic defocus and choroidal thickness in children and adults. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2024;65:22 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.65.4.22.","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optom.2025.100556","volume":"18","author":"RP Sah","year":"2025","unstructured":"Sah RP, Patel NB, Queener HM, Narra PK, Ostrin LA. Deep learning-based segmentation of OCT images for choroidal thickness. J Optom. 2025;18:100556. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.optom.2025.100556.","journal-title":"J Optom"},{"key":"171_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s40662-026-00477-1","volume":"13","author":"B Lal","year":"2026","unstructured":"Lal B, Ostrin LA. Short-term effects of atropine on the retina and choroid in young adults. Eye Vis (Lond). 2026;13:8 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40662-026-00477-1.","journal-title":"Eye Vis (Lond)"},{"key":"171_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"He K, Zhang X, Ren S, Sun J. Deep residual learning for image recognition. In: Agapito L, Berg T, Kosecka J, Zelnik-Manor L, editors In: 2016 IEEE conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR). Las Vegas, Nevada: IEEE; 2016. p. 770\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/CVPR.2016.90.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.90"},{"key":"171_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chen L-C, Zhu Y, Papandreou G, Schroff F, Adam H. Encoder\u2013decoder with atrous separable convolution for semantic image segmentation. In: Ferrari V, Herbert M, Sminchisescu C, Weiss Y, editors. Computer vision\u2014ECCV 2018. Cham: Springer; 2018. p. 833\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-01234-2_49.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-01234-2_49"},{"key":"171_CR41","unstructured":"Bennett AG, Rabbetts RB. The schematic eye. In: Bennett AG, Rabbetts RB, editors. Clinical visual optics. London: Butterworths; 1989. p. 249\u201374."},{"key":"171_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bennett AG, Rudnicka AR, Edgar DF. Improvements on Littmann\u2019s method of determining the size of retinal features by fundus photography. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1994;232:361\u20137.\u00a0https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/BF00175988.","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00175988"},{"key":"171_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.13.8.42","volume":"13","author":"B Lal","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lal B, She Z, Beach KM, Hung LF, Patel NB, Smith EL III, et al. Inner retinal microvasculature with refraction in juvenile rhesus monkeys. Transl Vis Sci Technol. 2024;13:42 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/tvst.13.8.42.","journal-title":"Transl Vis Sci Technol"},{"key":"171_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0230260","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0230260","volume":"15","author":"JH Terheyden","year":"2020","unstructured":"Terheyden JH, Wintergerst MWM, Falahat P, Berger M, Holz FG, Finger RP. Automated thresholding algorithms outperform manual thresholding in macular optical coherence tomography angiography image analysis. PLoS One. 2020;15:e0230260 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0230260.","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"171_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2020.08.045","volume":"222","author":"Z Chu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Chu Z, Zhang Q, Gregori G, Rosenfeld PJ, Wang RK. Guidelines for imaging the choriocapillaris using OCT angiography. Am J Ophthalmol. 2021;222:92\u2013101. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ajo.2020.08.045.","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.12728","volume":"40","author":"JJ Rozema","year":"2020","unstructured":"Rozema JJ, Ni Dhubhghaill S. Age-related axial length changes in adults: a review. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2020;40:710\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/opo.12728.","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"key":"171_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-198412000-00005","volume":"61","author":"RD Septon","year":"1984","unstructured":"Septon RD. Myopia among optometry students. Am J Optom Physiol Opt. 1984;61:745\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/00006324-198412000-00005.","journal-title":"Am J Optom Physiol Opt"},{"key":"171_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1444-0938.2005.tb06688.x","volume":"88","author":"BC Jiang","year":"2005","unstructured":"Jiang BC, Schatz S, Seger K. Myopic progression and dark focus variation in optometric students during the first academic year. Clin Exp Optom. 2005;88:153\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1444-0938.2005.tb06688.x.","journal-title":"Clin Exp Optom"},{"key":"171_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-199707000-00015","volume":"74","author":"DA Goss","year":"1997","unstructured":"Goss DA, Van Veen HG, Rainey BB, Feng B. Ocular components measured by keratometry, phakometry, and ultrasonography in emmetropic and myopic optometry students. Optom Vis Sci. 1997;74:489\u201395. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/00006324-199707000-00015.","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1313.1989.tb00907.x","volume":"9","author":"MA Bullimore","year":"1989","unstructured":"Bullimore MA, Conway R, Nakash A. Myopia in optometry students: family history, age of onset and personality. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 1989;9:284\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1475-1313.1989.tb00907.x.","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"key":"171_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2019.1415","volume":"137","author":"D Bez","year":"2019","unstructured":"Bez D, Megreli J, Bez M, Avramovich E, Barak A, Levine H. Association between type of educational system and prevalence and severity of myopia among male adolescents in Israel. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2019;137:887\u201393. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2019.1415.","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR52","first-page":"785","volume":"21","author":"MT Tay","year":"1992","unstructured":"Tay MT, Au Eong KG, Ng CY, Lim MK. Myopia and educational attainment in 421,116 young Singaporean males. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 1992;21:785\u201391.","journal-title":"Ann Acad Med Singapore"},{"key":"171_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2015.03.018","volume":"122","author":"KM Williams","year":"2015","unstructured":"Williams KM, Bertelsen G, Cumberland P, Wolfram C, Verhoeven VJM, Anastasopoulos E, et al. Increasing prevalence of myopia in Europe and the impact of education. Ophthalmol. 2015;122:1489\u201397. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ophtha.2015.03.018.","journal-title":"Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1097\/01.opx.0000159358.71125.95","volume":"82","author":"NS Logan","year":"2005","unstructured":"Logan NS, Davies LN, Mallen EA, Gilmartin B. Ametropia and ocular biometry in a U.K. university student population. Optom Vis Sci. 2005;82:261\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/01.opx.0000159358.71125.95.","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1313.2007.00475.x","volume":"27","author":"J Jorge","year":"2007","unstructured":"Jorge J, Almeida JB, Parafita MA. Refractive, biometric and topographic changes among Portuguese university science students: a 3-year longitudinal study. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2007;27:287\u201394. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1475-1313.2007.00475.x.","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"key":"171_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1262","DOI":"10.1097\/Opx.0000000000000926","volume":"93","author":"J Jorge","year":"2016","unstructured":"Jorge J, Braga A, Queir\u00f3s A. Changes in myopia prevalence among first-year university students in 12 years. Optom Vis Sci. 2016;93:1262\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/Opx.0000000000000926.","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clae.2021.101470","volume":"45","author":"Q Fan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Fan Q, Wang H, Jiang Z. Axial length and its relationship to refractive error in Chinese university students. Cont Lens Anterior Eye. 2022;45:101470. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.clae.2021.101470.","journal-title":"Cont Lens Anterior Eye"},{"key":"171_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-023-06176-0","volume":"262","author":"S Liu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Liu S, Chen J, Wang J, Zhu Z, Zhang J, Zhang B, et al. Cutoff values of axial length\/corneal radius ratio for determining myopia vary with age among 3\u201318 years old children and adolescents. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2024;262:651\u201361. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00417-023-06176-0.","journal-title":"Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-199409000-00005","volume":"71","author":"T Grosvenor","year":"1994","unstructured":"Grosvenor T, Scott R. Role of the axial length\/corneal radius ratio in determining the refractive state of the eye. Optom Vis Sci. 1994;71:573\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/00006324-199409000-00005.","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.10.3.8","volume":"10","author":"SS Lee","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lee SS, Lingham G, Alonso-Caneiro D, Charng J, Chen FK, Yazar S, et al. Macular thickness profile and its association with best-corrected visual acuity in healthy young adults. Transl Vis Sci Technol. 2021;10:8 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/tvst.10.3.8.","journal-title":"Transl Vis Sci Technol"},{"key":"171_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1444-0938.2012.00749.x","volume":"95","author":"YH Hwang","year":"2012","unstructured":"Hwang YH, Kim YY. Macular thickness and volume of myopic eyes measured using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography. Clin Exp Optom. 2012;95:492\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1444-0938.2012.00749.x.","journal-title":"Clin Exp Optom"},{"key":"171_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2013-304000","volume":"98","author":"CS Tan","year":"2014","unstructured":"Tan CS, Cheong KX, Lim LW, Li KZ. Topographic variation of choroidal and retinal thicknesses at the macula in healthy adults. Br J Ophthalmol. 2014;98:339\u201344. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2013-304000.","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2015.11.009","volume":"123","author":"PJ Patel","year":"2016","unstructured":"Patel PJ, Foster PJ, Grossi CM, Keane PA, Ko F, Lotery A, et al. Spectral-domain optical coherence tomography imaging in 67 321 adults: associations with macular thickness in the UK biobank study. Ophthalmol. 2016;123:829\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ophtha.2015.11.009.","journal-title":"Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2006.05.005","volume":"46","author":"DA Atchison","year":"2006","unstructured":"Atchison DA, Schmid KL, Pritchard N. Neural and optical limits to visual performance in myopia. Vision Res. 2006;46:3707\u201322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.visres.2006.05.005.","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"171_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1791","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.15-18529","volume":"57","author":"JB Jonas","year":"2016","unstructured":"Jonas JB, Xu L, Wei WB, Pan Z, Yang H, Holbach L, et al. Retinal thickness and axial length. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2016;57:1791\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.15-18529.","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2020.02.012","volume":"214","author":"SSY Lee","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lee SSY, Lingham G, Alonso-Caneiro D, Chen FK, Yazar S, Hewitt AW, et al. Choroidal thickness in young adults and its association with visual acuity. Am J Ophthalmol. 2020;214:40\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ajo.2020.02.012.","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1080\/09286586.2019.1597899","volume":"26","author":"F Duan","year":"2019","unstructured":"Duan F, Yuan Z, Deng J, Wong YL, Yeo AC, Chen X. Choroidal thickness and associated factors among adult myopia: a baseline report from a medical university student cohort. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2019;26:244\u201350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09286586.2019.1597899.","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Epidemiol"},{"key":"171_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2014.05.035","volume":"158","author":"A Sanchez-Cano","year":"2014","unstructured":"Sanchez-Cano A, Orduna E, Segura F, Lopez C, Cuenca N, Abecia E, et al. Choroidal thickness and volume in healthy young white adults and the relationships between them and axial length, ametropia and sex. Am J Ophthalmol. 2014;158:574\u201383.e1. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ajo.2014.05.035.","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8438","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.11-8108","volume":"52","author":"XQ Li","year":"2011","unstructured":"Li XQ, Larsen M, Munch IC. Subfoveal choroidal thickness in relation to sex and axial length in 93 Danish university students. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2011;52:8438\u201341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.11-8108.","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1097\/IAE.0000000000000654","volume":"36","author":"A Karapetyan","year":"2016","unstructured":"Karapetyan A, Ouyang P, Tang LS, Gemilyan M. Choroidal thickness in relation to ethnicity measured using enhanced depth imaging optical coherence tomography. Retina. 2016;36:82\u201390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/IAE.0000000000000654.","journal-title":"Retina"},{"key":"171_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2013.02.005","volume":"120","author":"M Ho","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ho M, Liu DT, Chan VC, Lam DS. Choroidal thickness measurement in myopic eyes by enhanced depth optical coherence tomography. Ophthalmol. 2013;120:1909\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ophtha.2013.02.005.","journal-title":"Ophthalmol"},{"key":"171_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.15-18869","volume":"57","author":"CS Tan","year":"2016","unstructured":"Tan CS, Lim LW, Chow VS, Chay IW, Tan S, Cheong KX, et al. Optical coherence tomography angiography evaluation of the parafoveal vasculature and its relationship with ocular factors. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2016;57:224\u201334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.15-18869.","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"171_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1080\/02713683.2019.1607393","volume":"44","author":"C Wen","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wen C, Pei C, Xu X, Lei J. Influence of axial length on parafoveal and peripapillary metrics from swept source optical coherence tomography angiography. Curr Eye Res. 2019;44:980\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/02713683.2019.1607393.","journal-title":"Curr Eye Res"},{"key":"171_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Applegate RA, Donnelly WJ III, Marsack JD, Koenig DE, Pesudovs K. Three-dimensional relationship between high-order root-mean-square wavefront error, pupil diameter, and aging. J Opt Soc Am A. 2007;24:578\u201387. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/josaa.24.000578.","DOI":"10.1364\/josaa.24.000578"},{"key":"171_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1167\/6.1.1","volume":"6","author":"P Artal","year":"2006","unstructured":"Artal P, Benito A, Tabernero J. The human eye is an example of robust optical design. J Vis. 2006;6:1\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/6.1.1.","journal-title":"J Vis"},{"key":"171_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.13523","volume":"45","author":"RP Sah","year":"2025","unstructured":"Sah RP, Narra PK, Ostrin LA. A novel wearable sensor for objective measurement of distance and illumination. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2025;45:1067\u201379. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/opo.13523.","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"}],"container-title":["Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44402-026-00171-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44402-026-00171-8","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44402-026-00171-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T15:49:09Z","timestamp":1787327349000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s44402-026-00171-8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"references-count":76,"alternative-id":["171"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44402-026-00171-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["0275-5408","1475-1313"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0275-5408","type":"print"},{"value":"1475-1313","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"assertion":[{"value":"27 March 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"5 August 2026","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"7 August 2026","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 August 2026","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"LAO: Zeiss (consulting) and Meta, Topcon (research support). The remaining authors declare no competing interests.\u00a0JDM: Wavefront Dynamics (consulting, investor).","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}]}}