{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T12:36:05Z","timestamp":1793104565436,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]],"date-time":"2026-09-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789171200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]],"date-time":"2026-09-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789171200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,11]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s44402-026-00182-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]],"date-time":"2026-09-12T12:36:21Z","timestamp":1789216581000},"page":"1343-1351","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Human Myopia: Past, Present and Future"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"46","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7004-6026","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ian","family":"Flitcroft","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"182_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Al-Amri MD, El-Gomati M, Zubairy MS, editors. Optics in our time. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2016. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-31903-2.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-31903-2"},{"key":"182_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1119\/10.0005620","volume":"89","author":"O Passon","year":"2021","unstructured":"Passon O. Kelvin\u2019s clouds. Am J Phys. 2021;89:1037\u201341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1119\/10.0005620.","journal-title":"Am J Phys"},{"key":"182_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kelvin. Nineteenth century clouds over the dynamical theory of heat and light. Lond Edinburgh Dublin Philos Mag J Sci. 1901;2:1\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/14786440109462664.","DOI":"10.1080\/14786440109462664"},{"key":"182_CR4","unstructured":"Gide A. Le traite\u0301 du Narcisse (the\u0301orie du symbole). Paris: Librairie de l\u2019Art Ind\u00e9pendant; 1891."},{"key":"182_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2017-311625","volume":"102","author":"PTVM de Jong","year":"2018","unstructured":"de Jong PTVM. Myopia: its historical contexts. Br J Ophthalmol. 2018;102:1021\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2017-311625.","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"182_CR6","unstructured":"Sabra AI, editor. The optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Books I\u2013III, on direct vision. London: Warburg Institute, University of London; 1989."},{"key":"182_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ilardi Vincent. Renaissance vision from spectacles to telescopes. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society; 2007.","DOI":"10.70249\/9780871693914"},{"key":"182_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1093\/jhmas\/XI.1.13","volume":"11","author":"E Rosen","year":"1956","unstructured":"Rosen E. The invention of eyeglasses. J Hist Med Allied Sci. 1956;11:13\u201346.","journal-title":"J Hist Med Allied Sci"},{"key":"182_CR9","unstructured":"Kepler J. Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena, quibus Astronomiae Pars Optica. Frankfurt: Claudium Marnium & H\u00e6redes Ioannis Aubrii; 1604."},{"key":"182_CR10","unstructured":"Lindberg DC. Theories of vision from al-Kindi to Kepler. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1976."},{"key":"182_CR11","unstructured":"Darrigol O. A history of optics: from Greek antiquity to the nineteenth century. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2012."},{"key":"182_CR12","unstructured":"Descartes R. La Dioptrique. Leiden: Jan Maire; 1637."},{"key":"182_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Helmholtz H von. Beschreibung Eines Augen-spiegels Zur Untersuchung Der Netzhaut Im Lebenden Auge. Berlin: A. F\u00f6rstner\u2019sche Verlagsbuchhandlung; 1851.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-41295-4"},{"key":"182_CR14","unstructured":"Snellen H. Letterproeven ter bepaling der gezigtsscherpte. Utrecht: Probebuchstaben zur Bestimmung der Sehsch\u00e4rfe; 1862."},{"key":"182_CR15","unstructured":"Donders FC. On the anomalies of accommodation and refraction of the eye with a preliminary essay on physiological dioptrics. London: The New Sydenham Society; 1864."},{"key":"182_CR16","unstructured":"Cuignet F. Le keratoscope et l\u2019examen objectif de la r\u00e9fraction. Paris: 1873."},{"key":"182_CR17","unstructured":"Monoyer F. Sur l\u2019introduction du syst\u00e8me m\u00e9trique dans la num\u00e9ration des verres optiques. Ann Ocul (Paris) 1872;69:97\u2013100."},{"key":"182_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1093\/shm\/hkab122","volume":"35","author":"G Almond","year":"2022","unstructured":"Almond G. Vision testing in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Britain: opticians, medical practitioners and the battle for professional authority. Soc Hist Med. 2022;35:237\u201358. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/shm\/hkab122.","journal-title":"Soc Hist Med"},{"key":"182_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Amos JF. A summary of the life of \u201cThe Father of Optometry,\u201d Charles Prentice. Hindsight: J Optom Hist 2022;53. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14434\/hindsight.v53i1-2.35648.","DOI":"10.14434\/hindsight.v53i1-2.35648"},{"key":"182_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Michel J-B, Shen YK, Aiden AP, Veres A, Gray MK, Pickett JP, et al. Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books. Science. 2011;331:176\u201382. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.1199644.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1199644"},{"key":"182_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Moore M, Loughman J, Baek SH, Flitcroft I, Global patterns of myopia, age, sex, and vision loss: a comparative analysis of US and South Korean National Surveys. Ophthalmol Sci 2026;6:101142. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101142.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xops.2026.101142"},{"key":"182_CR22","unstructured":"Cohn H. Lehrbuch der Hygiene des Auges. Vienna: Urban & Schwarzenberg; 1892."},{"key":"182_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Polling JR, Verhoeven VJM, Tideman JWL, Klaver CCW,\u00a0Duke-Elder\u2019s views on prognosis, prophylaxis, and treatment of myopia: way ahead of his time. Strabismus. 2016;24:40\u20133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3109\/09273972.2015.1137706.","DOI":"10.3109\/09273972.2015.1137706"},{"key":"182_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wu PC, Chen CT, Chang LC, Niu YZ, Chen ML, Liao LL, et al. Increased time outdoors is followed by reversal of the long-term trend to reduced visual acuity in Taiwan primary school students. Ophthalmology. 2020;127:1462\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ophtha.2020.01.054.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2020.01.054"},{"key":"182_CR25","unstructured":"Steiger A. Die Entstehung der sph\u00e4rischen Refraktionen des menschlichen Auges. Berlin: Karger; 1913."},{"key":"182_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sorsby A, Benjamin B. Bennett AG. Steiger on refraction: a reappraisal. Br J Ophthalmol. 1981;65:805\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bjo.65.12.805.","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.65.12.805"},{"key":"182_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2013.02.008","volume":"114","author":"DI Flitcroft","year":"2013","unstructured":"Flitcroft DI. Is myopia a failure of homeostasis? Exp Eye Res. 2013;114:16\u201324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.exer.2013.02.008.","journal-title":"Exp Eye Res"},{"key":"182_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02002778","volume":"70","author":"M Straub","year":"1909","unstructured":"Straub M. Uber die Aetiologie der Brechungsanomalien des Auges und den Ursprung der Emmetropie. Graefes Arch Ophthalmol. 1909;70:130\u201399.","journal-title":"Graefes Arch Ophthalmol"},{"key":"182_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wells WC. XIX. Observations and experiments on vision. Philos Trans R Soc Lond 1811:378\u201391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstl.1811.0021.","DOI":"10.1098\/rstl.1811.0021"},{"key":"182_CR30","first-page":"139","volume":"2","author":"H Derby","year":"1874","unstructured":"Derby H. On the atropine treatment of acquired and progressive myopia. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1874;2:139\u201354.","journal-title":"Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc"},{"key":"182_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1080\/09273972.2017.1421675","volume":"26","author":"A Grzybowski","year":"2018","unstructured":"Grzybowski A, Sobolewska B. Dobrowolsky from St. Petersburg and Hosch from Basel reported improvement of myopia after atropine use in 1868 and 1871. Strabismus. 2018;26:46\u201346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09273972.2017.1421675.","journal-title":"Strabismus"},{"key":"182_CR32","first-page":"1","volume":"2","author":"V Dobrowolsky","year":"1868","unstructured":"Dobrowolsky V. Beitr\u00e4ge zur Lehre von den Anomalien der Refraction und Accommodation des Auges. Klin Monatsbl Augenheikd Supp. 1868;2:1\u2013137.","journal-title":"Klin Monatsbl Augenheikd Supp"},{"key":"182_CR33","first-page":"19","volume":"63","author":"F Hosch","year":"1871","unstructured":"Hosch F. \u00dcber die therapeutische Wirkung der Atropin auf myopische Augen. Basel Ferd Riehm. 1871;63:19\u201330.","journal-title":"Basel Ferd Riehm"},{"key":"182_CR34","first-page":"214","volume":"86","author":"WBI Pollock","year":"1916","unstructured":"Pollock WBI. The reduction of myopia in children of school age. Glasgow Med J. 1916;86:214\u20139.","journal-title":"Glasgow Med J"},{"key":"182_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.1097\/00007611-196209000-00011","volume":"55","author":"SB Gostin","year":"1962","unstructured":"Gostin SB. Prophylactic management of progressive myopia. South Med J. 1962;55:916\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/00007611-196209000-00011.","journal-title":"South Med J"},{"key":"182_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(59)90031-5","volume":"86","author":"RH Bedrossian","year":"1979","unstructured":"Bedrossian RH. The effect of atropine on myopia. Ophthalmology. 1979;86:713\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(59)90031-5.","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"182_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.3798.730","volume":"2","author":"A Sorsby","year":"1933","unstructured":"Sorsby A. The control of school myopia. Br Med J. 1933;2:730\u20133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmj.2.3798.730.","journal-title":"Br Med J"},{"key":"182_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1136\/jmg.1.1.47","volume":"55","author":"A Sorsby","year":"1964","unstructured":"Sorsby A, Fraser GR. Statistical note on the components of ocular refraction in twins. J Med Genet. 1964;55:47\u20139.","journal-title":"J Med Genet"},{"key":"182_CR39","unstructured":"Sorsby A, Sheriden M, Leary GA, Refraction and its components in twins. Medical Research Council Special Report Series No. 303. London: HMSO; 1961."},{"key":"182_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Young FA, Leary GA, Baldwin WR, West DC, Box RA, Harris E, et al. The transmission of refractive errors within Eskimo families. Optom Vis Sci. 1969;46:676\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/00006324-196909000-00005.","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-196909000-00005"},{"key":"182_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1038\/266066a0","volume":"266","author":"TN Wiesel","year":"1977","unstructured":"Wiesel TN, Raviola E. Myopia and eye enlargement after neonatal lid fusion in monkeys. Nature. 1977;266:66\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/266066a0.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"182_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(77)90872-1","volume":"124","author":"SM Sherman","year":"1977","unstructured":"Sherman SM, Norton TT, Casagrande VA. Myopia in the lid-sutured tree shrew (Tupaia glis). Brain Res. 1977;124:154\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0006-8993(77)90872-1.","journal-title":"Brain Res"},{"key":"182_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.1126\/science.694514","volume":"201","author":"J Wallman","year":"1978","unstructured":"Wallman J, Turkel J, Trachtman J. Extreme myopia produced by modest change in early visual experience. Science. 1978;201:1249\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.694514.","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"182_CR44","unstructured":"Rabin J, Van Sluyters RC, Malach R. Emmetropization: a vision-dependent phenomenon. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1981;20:561\u20134."},{"key":"182_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Troilo D, Smith EL, Nickla DL, Ashby R, Tkatchenko A V, Ostrin LA, et al.\u00a0IMI\u2014report on experimental models of emmetropization and myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2019;60:M31\u201388. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.18-25967.","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.18-25967"},{"key":"182_CR46","first-page":"201","volume":"29","author":"SJ Chew","year":"1988","unstructured":"Chew SJ, Chia SC, Lee LK. The pattern of myopia in young Singaporean men. Singapore Med J. 1988;29:201\u201311.","journal-title":"Singapore Med J"},{"key":"182_CR47","first-page":"489","volume":"34","author":"KG Au Eong","year":"1993","unstructured":"Au Eong KG, Tay TH, Lim MK. Education and myopia in 110,236 young Singaporean males. Singapore Med J. 1993;34:489\u201392.","journal-title":"Singapore Med J"},{"key":"182_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mountjoy E, Davies NM, Plotnikov D, Smith GD, Rodriguez S, Williams CE, et al. Education and myopia: assessing the direction of causality by Mendelian randomization. BMJ. 2018;361:k2022 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmj.k2022.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.k2022"},{"key":"182_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"National Research Council (U.S.). Working Group on Myopia Prevalence and Progression, Committee on Vision NRC. In: Myopia prevalence and progression. Washington DC. 1989. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17226\/1420.","DOI":"10.17226\/1420"},{"key":"182_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"National Academies of Sciences. Myopia: causes, prevention, and treatment of an increasingly common disease. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17226\/27734.","DOI":"10.17226\/27734"},{"key":"182_CR51","unstructured":"Manual of the International Statistical Classification of Disease, Injuries, and Causes of Death. Based on the recommendations of the eighth revision conference, 1965, and adopted by the nineteenth World Health Assembly. https:\/\/iris.who.int\/items\/4d6ed13e-c41c-4188-82f3-cdb76fbbb680. Accessed 17 Apr 2026."},{"key":"182_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Li Q, Wojciechowski R, Simpson CL, Hysi PG, Verhoeven VJM, Ikram MK, et al. Genome-wide association study for refractive astigmatism reveals genetic co-determination with spherical equivalent refractive error: the CREAM consortium. Hum Genet. 2015;134:131\u201346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00439-014-1500-y.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00439-014-1500-y"},{"key":"182_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Flitcroft DI, Loughman J, Wildsoet CF, Williams C, Guggenheim JA.\u00a0Novel myopia genes and pathways identified from syndromic forms of myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2018;59:338\u201348. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.17-22173.","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.17-22173"},{"key":"182_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Quint WH, Tadema KCD, Kokke NCCJ, Meester-Smoor MA, Miller AC, Willemsen R, et al. Post-GWAS screening of candidate genes for refractive error in mutant zebrafish models. Sci Rep. 2023;13:2017. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-023-28944-y.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-28944-y"},{"key":"182_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Amores A, Catchen J, Ferrara A, Fontenot Q, Postlethwait JH. Genome evolution and meiotic maps by massively parallel DNA sequencing: spotted gar, an outgroup for the teleost genome duplication. Genetics. 2011;188:799\u2013808. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1534\/genetics.111.127324.","DOI":"10.1534\/genetics.111.127324"},{"key":"182_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(94)00234-D","volume":"35","author":"K Zadnik","year":"1995","unstructured":"Zadnik K, Mijtti DO. How applicable are animal myopia models to human juvenile onset myopia? Vision Res. 1995;35:1283\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0042-6989(94)00234-D.","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"182_CR57","unstructured":"Yen MY, Liu JH, Kao SC, Shiao CH.\u00a0Comparison of the effect of atropine and cyclopentolate on myopia. Ann Ophthalmol. 1989;21:180\u20132, 187."},{"key":"182_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Shih Y, Chen C, Chou A, Ho A, Lin L, Hung P. Effects of different concentrations of atropine on controlling myopia in myopic children. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 1999;15:85\u201390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/jop.1999.15.85.","DOI":"10.1089\/jop.1999.15.85"},{"key":"182_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lawrenson JG, Huntjens B, Virgili G, Ng S, Dhakal R, Downie LE, et al. Interventions for myopia control in children: a living systematic review and network meta-analysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2025;2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/14651858.CD014758.pub3.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD014758.pub3"},{"key":"182_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2015.07.004","volume":"123","author":"A Chia","year":"2016","unstructured":"Chia A, Lu Q-S, Tan D. Five-year clinical trial on atropine for the treatment of myopia 2: myopia control with atropine 0.01% eyedrops. Ophthalmology. 2016;123:391\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ophtha.2015.07.004.","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"182_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Yam JC, Jiang Y, Tang SM, Law AKP, Chan JJ, Wong E, et al. Low-concentration Atropine for Myopia Progression (LAMP) study: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial of 0.05%, 0.025%, and 0.01% atropine eye drops in myopia control. Ophthalmology. 2019;126:113\u201324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ophtha.2018.05.029.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2018.05.029"},{"key":"182_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4835(91)90027-C","volume":"52","author":"RA Stone","year":"1991","unstructured":"Stone RA, Lin T, Laties AM. Muscarinic antagonist effects on experimental chick myopia. Exp Eye Res. 1991;52:755\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0014-4835(91)90027-C.","journal-title":"Exp Eye Res"},{"key":"182_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(99)00184-4","volume":"40","author":"EL Smith","year":"2000","unstructured":"Smith EL, Hung LF. Form-deprivation myopia in monkeys is a graded phenomenon. Vision Res. 2000;40:371\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0042-6989(99)00184-4.","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"182_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1111\/cxo.12316","volume":"98","author":"HE Bowrey","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bowrey HE, Metse AP, Leotta AJ, et al. The relationship between image degradation and myopia in the mammalian eye. Clin Exp Optom. 2015;98:555\u201363. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cxo.12316.","journal-title":"Clin Exp Optom"},{"key":"182_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.61.11.42","volume":"61","author":"DI Flitcroft","year":"2020","unstructured":"Flitcroft DI, Harb EN, Wildsoet CF. The spatial frequency content of urban and indoor environments as a potential risk factor for myopia development. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2020;61:42 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.61.11.42.","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"182_CR66","unstructured":"Hung LF, Wallman J, Smith EL. Vision-dependent changes in the choroidal thickness of macaque monkeys. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2000;41:1259\u20131269."},{"key":"182_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2012.08.002","volume":"103","author":"R Chakraborty","year":"2012","unstructured":"Chakraborty R, Read SA, Collins MJ. Monocular myopic defocus and daily changes in axial length and choroidal thickness of human eyes. Exp Eye Res. 2012;103:47\u201354. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.exer.2012.08.002.","journal-title":"Exp Eye Res"},{"key":"182_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1196","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2004.064212","volume":"89","author":"JR Phillips","year":"2005","unstructured":"Phillips JR. Monovision slows juvenile myopia progression unilaterally. Br J Ophthalmol. 2005;89:1196\u2013200. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bjo.2004.064212.","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"182_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"French AN, Morgan IG, Mitchell P, Rose KA. Risk factors for incident myopia in Australian schoolchildren: the Sydney Adolescent Vascular and Eye Study. Ophthalmology. 2013;120:2100\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ophtha.2013.02.035.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2013.02.035"},{"key":"182_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Rose KA, Morgan IG, Ip J, Kifley A, Huynh S, Smith W, et al. Outdoor activity reduces the prevalence of myopia in children. Ophthalmology. 2008;115:1279\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ophtha.2007.12.019.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2007.12.019"},{"key":"182_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1080\/02713680590907256","volume":"30","author":"P Cho","year":"2005","unstructured":"Cho P, Cheung SW, Edwards M. The Longitudinal Orthokeratology Research in Children (LORIC) in Hong Kong: a pilot study on refractive changes and myopic control. Curr Eye Res. 2005;30:71\u201380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/02713680590907256.","journal-title":"Curr Eye Res"},{"key":"182_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wildsoet CF, Chia A, Cho P, Guggenheim JA, Polling JR, Read S, et al. IMI\u2014Interventions Myopia Institute: Interventions for controlling myopia onset and progression report. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2019;60:M106\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.18-25958.","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.18-25958"},{"key":"182_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Haarman AEG, Enthoven CA, Tideman JWL, Tedja MS, Verhoeven VJM, Klaver CCW.\u00a0The complications of myopia: a review and meta-analysis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2020;61:49 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.61.4.49.","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.61.4.49"},{"key":"182_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Tideman JWL, Snabel MCC, Tedja MS, van Rijn GA, Wong KT, Kuijpers RWAM, et al. Association of axial length with risk of uncorrectable visual impairment for Europeans with myopia. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2016;134:1355\u201363. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2016.4009.","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2016.4009"},{"key":"182_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Flitcroft I, Bullimore MA, Gifford KL, Jonas JB, Jones D, Jones LW, et al. Myopia correction, myopia control and myopia management: definitions and recommended usage. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2025;66. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.66.6.41.","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.66.6.41"},{"key":"182_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Guggenheim JA, Northstone K, McMahon G, Ness AR, Deere K, Mattocks C, et al. Time outdoors and physical activity as predictors of incident myopia in childhood: a prospective cohort study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2012;53:2856\u201365. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.11-9091.","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.11-9091"},{"key":"182_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Xiong S, Sankaridurg P, Naduvilath T, Zang J, Zou H, Zhu J, et al. Time spent in outdoor activities in relation to myopia prevention and control: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Acta Ophthalmol. 2017;95:551\u201366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/aos.13403.","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.13403"},{"key":"182_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sherwin JC, Reacher MH, Keogh RH, Khawaja AP, Mackey DA, Foster PJ. \u00a0The association between time spent outdoors and myopia in children and adolescents. Ophthalmology. 2012;119:2141\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ophtha.2012.04.020.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2012.04.020"},{"key":"182_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000002257","volume":"102","author":"I Flitcroft","year":"2025","unstructured":"Flitcroft I. 2024 Chew Sek Jin Memorial lecture: \u201cAre we there yet? Optom Vis Sci. 2025;102:240\u201359.https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/OPX.0000000000002257.","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"182_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Laughton D, Hill JS, McParland M, Tasso V, Woods J, Zhu X, et al. Control of myopia using diffusion optics spectacle lenses: 4-year results of a multicentre randomised controlled, efficacy and safety study (CYPRESS). BMJ Open Ophthalmol. 2024;9:e001790 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjophth-2024-001790.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjophth-2024-001790"},{"key":"182_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lam CSY, Tang WC, Zhang HY, Lee PH, Tse DYY, Qi H, et al. Long-term myopia control effect and safety in children wearing DIMS spectacle lenses for 6 years. Sci Rep. 2023;13:5475. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-023-32700-7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-32700-7"},{"key":"182_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chamberlain P, Bradley A, Arumugam B, Hammond D, McNally J, Logan NS, et al. Long-term effect of dual-focus contact lenses on myopia progression in children: a 6-year Multicenter Clinical Trial. Optom Vis Sci. 2022;99:204\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001873.","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001873"},{"key":"182_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Li X, Huang Y, Yin Z, Liu C, Zhang S, Yang A, et al. Myopia control efficacy of spectacle lenses with aspherical lenslets: results of a 3-year follow-up study. Am J Ophthalmol. 2023;253:160\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ajo.2023.03.030.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2023.03.030"},{"key":"182_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.13.10.42","volume":"13","author":"J Neitz","year":"2024","unstructured":"Neitz J, Neitz M. Diffusion Optics Technology (DOT): a myopia control spectacle lens based on contrast theory. Transl Vis Sci Technol. 2024;13:42 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/tvst.13.10.42.","journal-title":"Transl Vis Sci Technol"},{"key":"182_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Tran N, Chiu S, Tian Y, Wildsoet CF. The significance of retinal image contrast and spatial frequency composition for eye growth modulation in young chicks. Vision Res. 2008;48:1655\u201362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.visres.2008.03.022.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2008.03.022"},{"key":"182_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Li D-L, Lanca C, Zhang X-J, Grzybowski A, He X-G, Pan C-W. Spatial frequency of environments and myopia: a systematic review on associated evidence and underlying mechanisms. Acta Ophthalmol. 2025;103:909\u201318. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/aos.17437.","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.17437"},{"key":"182_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Loughman J, Kobia-Acquah E, Lingham G, Butler J, Loskutova E, Mackey DA, et al. Myopia outcome study of atropine in children: two-year result of daily 0.01% atropine in a European population. Acta Ophthalmol. 2024;102:e245\u201356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/aos.15761.","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.15761"},{"key":"182_CR88","unstructured":"Mutti DO, Sholtz RI, Friedman NE, Zadnik K.\u00a0Peripheral refraction and ocular shape in children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41:1022\u201330."},{"key":"182_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chen M, Shu Q, Li F, Li L, Fan X. The whole life cycle myopia management. Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila). 2025;14:100161. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.apjo.2025.100161.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apjo.2025.100161"},{"key":"182_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ohno-Matsui K, Wu PC, Yamashiro K, Vutipongsatorn K, Fang Y, Cheung CMG, et al. IMI pathologic myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2021;62. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.62.5.5.","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.62.5.5"},{"key":"182_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1097\/ICL.0000000000000223","volume":"42","author":"B-J Cho","year":"2016","unstructured":"Cho B-J, Shin JY, Yu HG. Complications of pathologic myopia. Eye Contact Lens. 2016;42:9\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/ICL.0000000000000223.","journal-title":"Eye Contact Lens"},{"key":"182_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Saw SM, Gazzard G, Shin-Yen EC, Chua WH. Myopia and associated pathological complications. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2005;25:381\u201391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1475-1313.2005.00298.x.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1313.2005.00298.x"},{"key":"182_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hayashi K, Ohno-Matsui K, Shimada N, Moriyama M, Kojima A, Hayashi W, et al. Long-term pattern of progression of myopic maculopathy: a natural history study. Ophthalmology. 2010;117:1595\u2013.e4. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ophtha.2009.11.003.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2009.11.003"},{"key":"182_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"He X, Wang Y, Zhang X, Chi W, Yang W. Artificial intelligence in pathologic myopia: a review of clinical research studies. Front Med (Lausanne) 2025;12. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmed.2025.1572750.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2025.1572750"},{"key":"182_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Foo LL, Ng WY, Lim GYS, Tan T-E, Ang M, Ting DSW. Artificial intelligence in myopia: current and future trends. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2021;32:413\u201324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/ICU.0000000000000791.","DOI":"10.1097\/ICU.0000000000000791"}],"container-title":["Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44402-026-00182-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44402-026-00182-5","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44402-026-00182-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T12:03:24Z","timestamp":1793102604000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44402-026-00182-5"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,11]]}},"alternative-id":["182"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44402-026-00182-5","relation":{},"ISSN":["0275-5408","1475-1313"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0275-5408","type":"print"},{"value":"1475-1313","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]]},"assertion":[{"value":"20 April 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 August 2026","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 August 2026","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"12 September 2026","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Code C (Consultant\/Contractor): Johnson & Johnson, Coopervision, EssilorLuxottica, Thea, Vyluma, Dopavision; Code F (Financial Support): Ocumension, Vyluma, Coopervision, Essilorluxottica, Dopavision; Code O (Owner): Ocumetra; Code P (Patent): Ocumetra; Code I (personal financial interest): Ocumetra.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}]}}