{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T12:23:38Z","timestamp":1787833418957,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784505600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784505600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Saudi Dent. J."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The study aimed to assess and compare the periodontal status, salivary thiocyanate levels and salivary pH among non-tobacco users, smoked tobacco users and smokeless tobacco users. A cross-sectional investigation was carried out on 75 construction workers from active construction sites in Mangalore, Karnataka, India, aged 20\u201360 years. Participants were categorized into three groups: individuals with no tobacco habit, those consuming smoked tobacco, and those using smokeless tobacco. The periodontal condition of all subjects was evaluated with the WHO Oral Health Assessment Form (2013). Salivary thiocyanate concentration was estimated with an ultraviolet spectrophotometer set at a wavelength of 447 nm, whereas salivary pH was measured using a digital pH meter. Data analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, version 19.0). To compare variations among the groups, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied, followed by Tukey\u2019s post hoc test for pairwise comparisons. Gingival bleeding scores were elevated in smokeless tobacco users (100%) compared to smoked tobacco users (88%) and non-users (48%). Periodontal pockets\u2009&gt;\u20096 mm were found in 84% of smoked tobacco users and 76% of smokeless tobacco users, while non-users had none. Mean salivary thiocyanate levels were significantly higher in smoked tobacco users (11.28\u2009\u00b1\u20091.23) than in smokeless users (7.67\u2009\u00b1\u20091.08) and non-users (4.26\u2009\u00b1\u20091.15) (p\u2009&lt;\u20090.001). Salivary pH was lowest in smokeless tobacco users (6.18\u2009\u00b1\u20090.49), indicating a more acidic environment compared to smoked tobacco users (6.35\u2009\u00b1\u20090.54) and non-users (7.76\u2009\u00b1\u20090.45). Both smoked and smokeless tobacco use were associated with poorer periodontal parameters and altered salivary biomarkers among construction workers. Smoked tobacco users demonstrated higher salivary thiocyanate levels, while smokeless tobacco users exhibited lower salivary pH. These findings suggest that salivary biomarkers may reflect tobacco exposure and warrant further investigation regarding their relationship with periodontal disease severity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s44445-026-00215-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T12:40:19Z","timestamp":1784551219000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Association of tobacco use with periodontal status and salivary biomarkers (thiocyanate and pH) among construction workers: a cross-sectional study"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"38","author":[{"given":"Praneetha","family":"Rani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4961-6152","authenticated-orcid":false,"family":"Shivaprasad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abhijith","family":"Shetty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shilpa","family":"Levingston","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"215_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.4103\/0019-5278.83001","volume":"15","author":"B Adsul","year":"2011","unstructured":"Adsul B, Laad P, Howal P, Chaturvedi R (2011) Health problems among migrant construction workers: A unique public-private partnership project. Indian J Occup Environ Med 15(1):29","journal-title":"Indian J Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"215_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/684154","volume":"2013","author":"FH Al-Bayaty","year":"2013","unstructured":"Al-Bayaty FH, Baharuddin N, Abdulla MA, Ali HM, Arkilla MB, ALBayaty MF (2013) The influence of cigarette smoking on gingival bleeding and serum concentrations of haptoglobin and alpha 1-antitrypsin. Biomed Res Int 2013:1\u20136","journal-title":"Biomed Res Int"},{"issue":"2","key":"215_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.22452\/adum.vol15no2.1","volume":"15","author":"NA Baharuddin","year":"2008","unstructured":"Baharuddin NA, Al-Bayaty FH (2008) The relationship between smoking and periodontal status. Ann Dent 15(2):59\u201366","journal-title":"Ann Dent"},{"issue":"2","key":"215_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.4103\/0972-124X.145810","volume":"19","author":"M Bansal","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bansal M, Mittal N, Singh T (2015) Assessment of the prevalence of periodontal diseases and treatment needs: A hospital-based study. J Indian Soc Periodontology 19(2):211","journal-title":"J Indian Soc Periodontology"},{"issue":"9","key":"215_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.12968\/denu.2023.50.9.792","volume":"50","author":"D Bishayi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bishayi D, Suvarna K, Singh S, Dutta A, Thomas MS (2023) Technique Tips: A Reflection on Mouth Mirrors: Types, Usage and Modifications. Dent Update 50(9):792\u2013797","journal-title":"Dent Update"},{"issue":"5","key":"215_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1136\/thorax.58.5.435","volume":"58","author":"JA Critchley","year":"2003","unstructured":"Critchley JA (2003) Health effects associated with smokeless tobacco: a systematic review. Thorax 58(5):435\u2013443","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"215_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fenoll-Palomares C, Mu\u00f1oz-Montagud JV, Sanchiz V, Herreros B, Hern\u00e1ndez V, M\u00ednguez M, Benages A (2004) Unstimulated salivary flow rate, pH and buffer capacity of saliva in healthy volunteers. Revista Espa\u00f1ola de Enfermedades Digestivas 96 (11)","DOI":"10.4321\/S1130-01082004001100005"},{"issue":"20","key":"215_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3790","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24203790","volume":"24","author":"J Flieger","year":"2019","unstructured":"Flieger J, Kawka J, Tatarczak-Michalewska M (2019) Levels of the Thiocyanate in the Saliva of Tobacco Smokers in Comparison to e-Cigarette Smokers and Nonsmokers Measured by HPLC on a Phosphatidylcholine Column. Molecules 24(20):3790","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"issue":"7","key":"215_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.1999.70.7.711","volume":"70","author":"RJ Genco","year":"1999","unstructured":"Genco RJ, Ho AW, Grossi SG, Dunford RG, Tedesco LA (1999) Relationship of Stress, Distress, and Inadequate Coping Behaviors to Periodontal Disease. J Periodontol 70(7):711\u2013723","journal-title":"J Periodontol"},{"issue":"1","key":"215_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.4103\/0973-029X.180907","volume":"20","author":"N Grover","year":"2016","unstructured":"Grover N, Sharma J, Sengupta S, Singh S, Singh N, Kaur H (2016) Long-term effect of tobacco on unstimulated salivary pH. J Oral Maxillofacial Pathol 20(1):16","journal-title":"J Oral Maxillofacial Pathol"},{"issue":"1","key":"215_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.4103\/0970-9290.179807","volume":"27","author":"S Hegde","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hegde S, Chatterjee E, Rajesh K, Arun Kumar M (2016a) Estimation and correlation of salivary thiocyanate levels in periodontally healthy subjects, smokers, nonsmokers, and gutka-chewers with chronic periodontitis. Indian J Dent Res 27(1):12","journal-title":"Indian J Dent Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"215_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.4103\/0970-9290.179807","volume":"27","author":"S Hegde","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hegde S, Chatterjee E, Rajesh K, Arun Kumar M (2016b) Estimation and correlation of salivary thiocyanate levels in periodontally healthy subjects, smokers, nonsmokers, and gutka-chewers with chronic periodontitis. Indian J of Dent Res 27(1):12","journal-title":"Indian J Dent Res"},{"issue":"2","key":"215_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1067\/mpr.2001.113778","volume":"85","author":"SP Humphrey","year":"2001","unstructured":"Humphrey SP, Williamson RT (2001) A review of saliva: Normal composition, flow, and function. J Prosthet Dent 85(2):162\u2013169","journal-title":"J Prosthet Dent"},{"issue":"3","key":"215_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.4103\/jomfp.jomfp_518_22","volume":"27","author":"K Jain","year":"2023","unstructured":"Jain K, Gakhar R, Bhatia S, Manjunatha BS, Jindal D, Jindal V (2023) Comparison of salivary flow rate and pH between healthy subjects and tobacco and areca nut chewers. J Oral Maxillofacial Pathol 27(3):599\u2013600","journal-title":"J Oral Maxillofacial Pathol"},{"issue":"4","key":"215_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1002\/j.0022-0337.2001.65.4.tb03401.x","volume":"65","author":"GK Johnson","year":"2001","unstructured":"Johnson GK, Slach NA (2001) Impact of tobacco use on periodontal status. J Dent Educ 65(4):313\u2013321","journal-title":"J Dent Educ"},{"issue":"2","key":"215_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.4103\/0976-237X.132312","volume":"5","author":"CV Kalburgi","year":"2014","unstructured":"Kalburgi CV, Naik KL, Kokatnur MV, Warad S (2014) Estimation and correlation of salivary thiocyanate levels in healthy and different forms of tobacco users having chronic periodontitis: A cross-sectional biochemical study. Contemp Clin Dent 5(2):182\u2013186","journal-title":"Contemp Clin Dent"},{"issue":"6","key":"215_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics11060932","volume":"11","author":"T-J Ko","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ko T-J, Byrd KM, Kim SA (2021) The Chairside Periodontal Diagnostic Toolkit: Past, Present, and Future. Diagnostics 11(6):932","journal-title":"Diagnostics"},{"issue":"1","key":"215_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.4103\/ijdr.IJDR_387_19","volume":"32","author":"CN Kumar","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kumar CN, Rao SM, Jethlia A, Linganna CS, Bhargava M, Palve DH (2021) Assessment of Salivary Thiocyanate Levels and Ph in the Saliva of Smokers and Nonsmokers with Chronic Periodontitis \u2013 A Comparative Study. Indian J Dent Res 32(1):74\u201378","journal-title":"Indian J Dent Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"215_CR19","first-page":"15","volume":"10","author":"S Madbhavi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Madbhavi S, Kale AD (2019) Estimation and Comparison of Salivary Thiocyanate Levels in Active and Passive Smokers. J Health Sci Res 10(1):15\u201317","journal-title":"J Health Sci Res"},{"key":"215_CR20","unstructured":"Mahalakshmi K, Sakthi SD, Jayakumar ND, Indiran AM, Sakthi CD (2022) Association between oral hygiene, oral health status, dietary patterns and body mass index among construction workers in Chennai. J Pharm Negat Results 13"},{"key":"215_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malik SD (2021) Detection of dried saliva on human skin using an ultra violet spectrometer: a technical report. J Forensic Dent Sci 41\u201344","DOI":"10.18311\/jfds\/12\/1\/2020.6"},{"key":"215_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagarajappa R (2013) Assessment of the periodontal status among Kota stone workers in Jhalawar India. J of Clin and Diag Res 7(7):1498\u20131503","DOI":"10.7860\/JCDR\/2013\/5420.3173"},{"issue":"s6","key":"215_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-051X.2005.00786.x","volume":"32","author":"RM Palmer","year":"2005","unstructured":"Palmer RM, Wilson RF, Hasan AS, Scott DA (2005) Mechanisms of action of environmental factors \u2013 tobacco smoking. J Clin Periodontol 32(s6):180\u2013195","journal-title":"J Clin Periodontol"},{"issue":"4","key":"215_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.9734\/AJMAH\/2017\/36522","volume":"7","author":"P Parmar","year":"2017","unstructured":"Parmar P, Radha G, Rekha R, Pallavi S (2017a) Assessing Salivary Flow Rate, Salivary pH and Oral Candidiasis among Tobacco Chewers, Smokers and Healthy Controls- A Cross Sectional Study. Asian J Med Health 7(4):1\u20138","journal-title":"Asian J Med Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"215_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.9734\/AJMAH\/2017\/36522","volume":"7","author":"P Parmar","year":"2017","unstructured":"Parmar P, Radha G, Rekha R, Pallavi S (2017b) Assessing Salivary Flow Rate, Salivary pH and Oral Candidiasis among Tobacco Chewers, Smokers and Healthy Controls- A Cross Sectional Study. Asian J Med Health 7(4):1\u20138","journal-title":"Asian J Med Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"215_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.4103\/jomfp.JOMFP_49_17","volume":"22","author":"B Prakruthi","year":"2018","unstructured":"Prakruthi B, Nandini D, Donoghue M, Praveen SB, Kumar KM, Ashwini R (2018) Effects of salivary thiocyanate levels on oral mucosa in young adult smokers: A biochemical and cytological study. J Oral Maxillofacial Pathol 22(2):204\u2013209","journal-title":"J Oral Maxillofacial Pathol"},{"key":"215_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pullishery F (2015) Salivary thiocyanate, uric acid and pH as biomarkers of periodontal disease in tobacco users and non-users: An in-vitro study. J of Clin and Diag Res 9(7):ZC47\u2013ZC50","DOI":"10.7860\/JCDR\/2015\/12783.6203"},{"issue":"3","key":"215_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.4103\/0019-5359.22760","volume":"60","author":"T Rooban","year":"2006","unstructured":"Rooban T, Mishra G, Elizabeth J, Ranganathan K, Saraswathi TR (2006) Effect of habitual arecanut chewing on resting whole mouth salivary flow rate and pH. Indian J Med Sci 60(3):95\u2013105","journal-title":"Indian J Med Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"215_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1046","DOI":"10.4314\/ahs.v18i4.26","volume":"18","author":"N Sen","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sen N, Asawa K, Bhat N, Tak M, Sultane P, Chakravarty T (2018) A comparative assessment of caries risk using cariogram among smokers and smokeless tobacco users in india \u2013 a cross-sectional study. Afr Health Sci 18(4):1046","journal-title":"Afr Health Sci"},{"issue":"6","key":"215_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.4103\/jfmpc.jfmpc_36_18","volume":"7","author":"S Shah","year":"2018","unstructured":"Shah S, Dave B, Shah R, Mehta T, Dave R (2018) Socioeconomic and cultural impact of tobacco in India. J Family Med Prim Care 7(6):1173","journal-title":"J Family Med Prim Care"},{"issue":"5","key":"215_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.3390\/biology10050441","volume":"10","author":"H Silva","year":"2021","unstructured":"Silva H (2021) Tobacco Use and Periodontal Disease\u2014The Role of Microvascular Dysfunction. Biology 10(5):441","journal-title":"Biology"},{"issue":"1","key":"215_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0757.2009.00337.x","volume":"55","author":"F Van Der Weijden","year":"2011","unstructured":"Van Der Weijden F, Slot DE (2011) Oral hygiene in the prevention of periodontal diseases: the evidence. Periodontol 2000 55(1):104\u2013123","journal-title":"Periodontol 2000"},{"issue":"5","key":"215_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1066","DOI":"10.1002\/cpt.2493","volume":"111","author":"J Wilhelm","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wilhelm J, Mishina E, Viray L, Paredes A, Pickworth WB (2022) The pH of Smokeless Tobacco Determines Nicotine Buccal Absorption: Results of a Randomized Crossover Trial. Clin Pharmacol Ther 111(5):1066\u20131074","journal-title":"Clin Pharmacol Ther"},{"issue":"4","key":"215_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1002\/j.0022-0337.2001.65.4.tb03400.x","volume":"65","author":"DM Winn","year":"2001","unstructured":"Winn DM (2001) Tobacco Use and Oral Disease. J Dent Educ 65(4):306\u2013312","journal-title":"J Dent Educ"},{"issue":"1","key":"215_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.4103\/ijcm.IJCM_88_19","volume":"45","author":"B Yuvaraj","year":"2020","unstructured":"Yuvaraj B, Mane V, Biradar M, Nayaka V, Sreenivasamurthy R (2020) Prevalence of consumption of smokeless tobacco products and exposure to second-hand smoke among women in the reproductive age group in a rural area of Koppal, Karnataka. Indian J Community Med 45(1):92","journal-title":"Indian J Community Med"},{"key":"215_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang Y, He J, He B, Huang R, Li M (2019 May) Effect of tobacco on periodontal disease and oral cancer. Tob Induc Dis 17","DOI":"10.18332\/tid\/106187"}],"container-title":["The Saudi Dental Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44445-026-00215-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44445-026-00215-2","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44445-026-00215-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T12:01:19Z","timestamp":1787832079000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s44445-026-00215-2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["215"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44445-026-00215-2","relation":{},"ISSN":["1013-9052","2524-1702"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1013-9052","type":"print"},{"value":"2524-1702","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]]},"assertion":[{"value":"7 March 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"12 July 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"20 July 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Received approval from the Human Ethics Committee [Institutional Review Board of A.J. Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre (ECR\/348\/Inst\/KA\/2013\/RR-16)] and informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Yes.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Nil.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Author information","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"100"}}